Attribut:Résumé DBP
De Remix Biens Communs
Cette propriété est de type Monolingual text.
G
En botanique, la garrigue (du provençal garriga) est une formation végétale caractéristique des régions méditerranéennes, proche du maquis. Selon l'École agronomique de Montpellier, la garrigue est au calcaire ce que le maquis est aux terrains siliceux. L'École agronomique de Toulouse associe le terme de garrigue à l'étagement de végétation. Garrigue et maquis peuvent être réunis sous un même vocable : le matorral qui constitue une sère d'une succession régressive due au passage récurrent du feu, correspondant généralement à un écosystème forestier dégradé, parfois à un réembroussaillement d'anciennes pâtures ou de terres cultivées laissées à l'abandon. (fr) +, Garrigue or garigue (/ɡəˈriːɡ/ gə-REEG), also known as phrygana (Greek: φρύγανα [ˈfriɣana], n. pl.), is a type of low scrubland ecoregion and plant community in the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome. It is found on limestone soils in southern France and around the Mediterranean Basin, generally near the seacoast where the moderated Mediterranean climate provides annual summer drought. It is an anthropogenic degradation and succession form of former evergreen oak forests that existed until 4500 years BC. The term has also found its way into haute cuisine, suggestive of the resinous flavours of a garrigue shrubland. (en) +, La garriga es un tipo de ecorregión compuesta por formaciones vegetales que surgen en los biomas de los bosques mediterráneos. Estas formaciones son el resultado de la degradación del chaparral y otras comunidades vegetales como bosques de quercineas provocadas por la acción del hombre: el sobrepastoreo y el fuego.Es un hábitat degradado que en ocasiones sustituye a los encinares y otros robledales quemados o talados. El nombre deriva de la palabra francesa tomada del occitano garric, que en la lengua de Oc designa a una de las especies vegetales más comunes: Quercus coccifera, llamado Chêne des garrigues (roble de garriga) en francés. La garriga cubre los sustratos calizos y puede también colonizar afloramientos rocosos. El término chaparral proviene de chaparro: mata de roble enano de muchas ramas y poca altura, que a su vez viene del vasco txaparro, con el mismo significado. En España existe una comarca en la provincia catalana de Lérida denominada Las Garrigas, cuyo nombre hace referencia a esta formación. (es) +
Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to femininity and masculinity and differentiating between them. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles) and gender identity. Most cultures use a gender binary, in which gender is divided into two categories, and people are considered part of one or the other (boys/men and girls/women); those who are outside these groups may fall under the umbrella term non-binary. Some societies have specific genders besides "man" and "woman", such as the hijras of South Asia; these are often referred to as third genders (and fourth genders, etc.). Most scholars agree that gender is a central characteristic for social organization. Sexologist John Money is often regarded as the first to introduce a terminological distinction between biological sex and gender role (which, as originally defined, includes the concepts of both gender role and what would later become known as gender identity) in 1955 although Madison Bentley had already in 1945 defined gender as the "socialized obverse of sex", and Simone de Beauvoir's 1949 book The Second Sex has been interpreted as the beginning of the distinction between sex and gender in feminist theory. Before Money's work, it was uncommon to use the word gender to refer to anything but grammatical categories. However, Money's meaning of the word did not become widespread until the 1970s, when feminist theory embraced the concept of a distinction between biological sex and the social construct of gender. Most contemporary social scientists, behavioral scientists and biologists, many legal systems and government bodies, and intergovernmental agencies such as the WHO, make a distinction between gender and sex. In other contexts, the term gender is used to replace sex without representing a clear conceptual difference. For instance, in non-human animal research, gender is commonly used to refer to the biological sex of the animals. This change in the meaning of gender can be traced to the 1980s. In 1993, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) started to use gender instead of sex to avoid confusion with sexual intercourse. Later, in 2011, the FDA reversed its position and began using sex as the biological classification and gender as "a person's self-representation as male or female, or how that person is responded to by social institutions based on the individual's gender presentation." The social sciences have a branch devoted to gender studies. Other sciences, such as sexology and neuroscience, are also interested in the subject. The social sciences sometimes approach gender as a social construct, and gender studies particularly do, while research in the natural sciences investigates whether biological differences in females and males influence the development of gender in humans; both inform the debate about how far biological differences influence the formation of gender identity and gendered behavior. In some English literature, there is also a trichotomy between biological sex, psychological gender, and social gender role. This framework first appeared in a feminist paper on transsexualism in 1978. (en)
La gentrification, mot issu de l'anglais gentrification — en français québécois embourgeoisement ou, dans la presse, boboïsation (du terme bobo) — désigne « les transformations de quartiers populaires dues à l’arrivée de catégories sociales plus favorisées qui réhabilitent certains logements et importent des modes de vie et de consommation différents ». Cette expression est employée pour la première fois par la sociologue Ruth Glass dans son ouvrage London: Aspects of Change, étudiant dans les années 1960 les processus par lesquels les populations les moins favorisées de Londres étaient chassées de certains quartiers tandis que s'y créaient de véritables ghettos de la classe aisée. Le concept a par la suite été repris, développé et approfondi partout au Royaume-Uni ainsi qu'aux États-Unis. Ce n'est qu'au début des années 2000 que le terme « gentrification » apparaît dans les milieux académiques français. Le processus de gentrification résulte de l’accroissement de l’intérêt porté à un certain espace. Les premiers « gentrifieurs » peuvent appartenir à des communautés d’artistes aux faibles revenus, ce qui contribue à l’attractivité du quartier. Ensuite, diverses étapes de hausse des investissements dans le secteur immobilier par les acteurs privés et publics conduisent au développement économique du quartier, à une augmentation de l’attractivité des commerces et une baisse du taux de criminalité. Par ailleurs, la gentrification peut entraîner des migrations de population. (fr) +, Gentrification is the process of changing the character of a neighborhood through the influx of more affluent residents and businesses. It is a common and controversial topic in urban politics and planning. Gentrification often increases the economic value of a neighborhood, but the resulting demographic displacement may itself become a major social issue. Gentrification often sees a shift in a neighborhood's racial or ethnic composition and average household income as housing and businesses become more expensive and resources that had not been previously accessible are extended and improved. The gentrification process is typically the result of increasing attraction to an area by people with higher incomes spilling over from neighboring cities, towns, or neighborhoods. Further steps are increased investments in a community and the related infrastructure by real estate development businesses, local government, or community activists and resulting economic development, increased attraction of business, and lower crime rates. In addition to these potential benefits, gentrification can lead to population migration and displacement. In extreme cases, gentrification can be brought on by a prosperity bomb. However, some view the fear of displacement, which dominates the debate about gentrification, as hindering discussion about genuine progressive approaches to distribute the benefits of urban redevelopment strategies. (en) +
La gestion de l'eau est l'activité qui consiste à protéger, planifier, développer, distribuer et gérer l'utilisation optimale des ressources en eau et des milieux aquatiques, des points de vue qualitatif et quantitatif. Ceci inclut la gestion des risques « quantitatifs » et évènements extrêmes de sécheresse et pénurie, d'inondations et de crues, érosion des sols et du trait de côte, d', notamment liés au changement climatique, à la déforestation et à la destruction des zones humides. S'y ajoute les questions de pollutions telluriques des zones côtières et des mers et océans, par les activités humaines, essentiellement charriées par les fleuves. Axée sur le développement des ressources en eau depuis les années 1970, cette activité se tourne sur leur gestion dans les années 1980 et sur la gestion intégrée des ressources en eau dans les années 1990, cette évolution traduisant la mobilisation du secteur public et privé en faveur du développement durable. En 2017, au moins 196 villes mondiales, soit 1,2 milliard de personnes (20 % de la population) sont considérées comme confrontées à des problèmes de gestion de l’eau selon le CDP (ex. : Miami, Pittsburgh (États-Unis) et Johannesburg (Afrique du Sud), qui dont confrontées à un risque « extrême » d’inondations. Les actions de gestion sont de court, moyen et long termes et pour certaines doivent concerner tout un bassin versant. Elles concernent donc de nombreux acteurs (dont collectivités publiques, entreprises agriculteurs et habitants), entités décisionnelles réunies sous le nom de gouvernance de l'eau. Dans un contexte de marchandisation l'eau est de plus en plus perçue comme une ressource naturelle précieuse et un bien commun à partager avec les autres êtres vivants de la planète ; une ressource limitée et inégalement répartie, à utiliser de manière économe et à dépolluer avant de la rendre au milieu naturel. (fr) +, La gestión del agua o la gestión de recursos hídricos es la actividad de planificar, desarrollar, distribuir y dirigir el uso óptimo de los recursos hídricos. Es un subconjunto de la . A veces se la denomina "gestión sostenible de recursos hídricos", pero es una redundancia, porque toda gestión óptima es necesariamente sostenible. El agua es esencial para la supervivencia de los seres vivos. La gestión del agua deberá continuar adaptándose a los cambios actuales y futuros en la existencia y asignación de estos recursos. Con la creciente incertidumbre por el calentamiento mundial y con los impactos a largo plazo de las acciones de gestión, la toma de decisiones será aún más difícil. Es probable que el calentamiento mundial lleve a situaciones aún no experimentadas. En consecuencia se buscan estrategias alternativas de gestión para evitar contratiempos en la asignación de recursos hídricos. Idealmente, la planificación de los recursos hídricos debe considerar todas las demandas de agua (sanitaria, agricultura, industria, medio ambiente), que compiten entre sí por un recurso escaso. La planificación busca repartir equitativamente el agua para satisfacer todas las demandas. Al igual que en otros casos de gestión de recursos, esto rara vez resulta posible en la práctica. Uno de las mayores preocupaciones sobre los recursos hídricos es la sostenibilidad de su asignación actual y futura. Cuando el agua deviene más escasa, crece enormemente la importancia de cómo se gestiona. Encontrar un equilibrio entre lo que necesitan las personas y lo que necesita el medio ambiente es un paso importante en la sostenibilidad de los recursos hídricos. (es) +, Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful for humans, for example as a source of drinking water supply or irrigation water. 97% of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air. Natural sources of fresh water include surface water, under river flow, groundwater and frozen water. Artificial sources of fresh water can include treated wastewater (wastewater reuse) and desalinated seawater. Human uses of water resources include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Water resources are under threat from water scarcity, water pollution, water conflict and climate change. Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of groundwater is steadily decreasing, with depletion occurring most prominently in Asia, South America and North America, although it is still unclear how much natural renewal balances this usage, and whether ecosystems are threatened. The framework for allocating water resources to water users (where such a framework exists) is known as water rights. (en) +
Sustainable management takes the concepts from sustainability and synthesizes them with the concepts of management. Sustainability has three branches: the environment, the needs of present and future generations, and the economy. Using these branches, it creates the ability of a system to thrive by maintaining economic viability and also nourishing the needs of the present and future generations by limiting resource depletion. From this definition, sustainable management has been created to be defined as the application of sustainable practices in the categories of businesses, agriculture, society, environment, and personal life by managing them in a way that will benefit current generations and future generations. Sustainable management is needed because it is an important part of the ability to successfully maintain the quality of life on our planet. Sustainable management can be applied to all aspects of our lives. For example, the practices of a business should be sustainable if they wish to stay in businesses, because if the business is unsustainable, then by the definition of sustainability they will cease to be able to be in competition. Communities are in a need of sustainable management, because if the community is to prosper, then the management must be sustainable. Forest and natural resources need to have sustainable management if they are to be able to be continually used by our generation and future generations. Our personal lives also need to be managed sustainably. This can be by making decisions that will help sustain our immediate surroundings and environment, or it can be by managing our emotional and physical well-being. Sustainable management can be applied to many things, as it can be applied as a literal and an abstract concept. Meaning, depending on what they are applied to the meaning of what it is can change. (en) +
Gleaning is the act of collecting leftover crops from farmers' fields after they have been commercially harvested or on fields where it is not economically profitable to harvest. It is a practice described in the Hebrew Bible that became a legally enforced entitlement of the poor in a number of Christian kingdoms. Modern day "dumpster diving", when done for food or culinary ingredients, is seen as a similar form of food recovery. Gleaning is also still used today to provide nutritious harvested foods for those in need. It is modernly used due to a need for a national network to aid food recovery organizations in the United States. This is called the National Gleaning Project which was started by the at Vermont Law and Graduate School to aid those less fortunate much like the old Christian Kingdoms. (en) +
Local government is a generic term for the lowest tiers of public administration within a particular sovereign state. This particular usage of the word government refers specifically to a level of administration that is both geographically-localised and has limited powers. While in some countries, "government" is normally reserved purely for a national administration (government) (which may be known as a central government or federal government), the term local government is always used specifically in contrast to national government – as well as, in many cases, the activities of sub-national, first-level administrative divisions (which are generally known by names such as cantons, provinces, states, oblasts, or regions). Local governments generally act only within powers specifically delegated to them by law and/or directives of a higher level of government. In federal states, local government generally comprises a third or fourth tier of government, whereas in unitary states, local government usually occupies the second or third tier of government. The question of municipal autonomy is a key question of public administration and governance. Local elections are held in many countries. The institutions of local government vary greatly between countries, and even where similar arrangements exist, the terminology often varies. Common designated names for local government entities include state, province, region, canton, department, county, prefecture, district, city, township, town, borough, parish, municipality, shire, village, ward, local service district and local government area. (en) +
H
A housing cooperative, or housing co-op, is a legal entity, usually a cooperative or a corporation, which owns real estate, consisting of one or more residential buildings; it is one type of housing tenure. Housing cooperatives are a distinctive form of home ownership that have many characteristics that differ from other residential arrangements such as single family home ownership, condominiums and renting. The corporation is membership based, with membership granted by way of a share purchase in the cooperative. Each shareholder in the legal entity is granted the right to occupy one housing unit. A primary advantage of the housing cooperative is the pooling of the members' resources so that their buying power is leveraged; thus lowering the cost per member in all the services and products associated with home ownership. Another key element in some forms of housing cooperatives is that the members, through their elected representatives, screen and select who may live in the cooperative, unlike any other form of home ownership. Housing cooperatives fall into two general tenure categories: non-ownership (referred to as non-equity or continuing) and ownership (referred to as equity or strata). In non-equity cooperatives, occupancy rights are sometimes granted subject to an occupancy agreement, which is similar to a lease. In equity cooperatives, occupancy rights are sometimes granted by way of the purchase agreements and legal instruments registered on the title. The corporation's articles of incorporation and bylaws as well as occupancy agreement specifies the cooperative's rules. The word cooperative is also used to describe a non-share capital co-op model in which fee-paying members obtain the right to occupy a bedroom and share the communal resources of a house owned by a cooperative organization. Such is the case with student cooperatives in some college and university communities across the United States. (en) +
In Internet activism, hacktivism, or hactivism (a portmanteau of hack and activism), is the use of computer-based techniques such as hacking as a form of civil disobedience to promote a political agenda or social change. With roots in hacker culture and hacker ethics, its ends are often related to free speech, human rights, or freedom of information movements. Hacktivist activities span many political ideals and issues. Freenet, a peer-to-peer platform for censorship-resistant communication, is a prime example of translating political thought and freedom of speech into code. Hacking as a form of activism can be carried out through a network of activists, such as Anonymous and WikiLeaks, or through a singular activist, working in collaboration toward common goals without an overarching authority figure. "Hacktivism" is a controversial term with several meanings. The word was coined to characterize electronic direct action as working toward social change by combining programming skills with critical thinking. But just as hack can sometimes mean cyber crime, hacktivism can be used to mean activism that is malicious, destructive, and undermining the security of the Internet as a technical, economic, and political platform. According to the United States 2020-2022 Counterintelligence Strategy, in addition to state adversaries and transnational criminal organizations, "ideologically motivated entities such as hacktivists, leaktivists, and public disclosure organizations, also pose significant threats". (en) +
Hospitality is the relationship between a guest and a host, wherein the host receives the guest with some amount of goodwill, including the reception and entertainment of guests, visitors, or strangers. Louis, chevalier de Jaucourt describes hospitality in the Encyclopédie as the virtue of a great soul that cares for the whole universe through the ties of humanity. Hospitality is also the way people treat others, that is, the service of welcoming and receiving guests for example in hotels. Hospitality plays a fundamental role to augment or decrease the volume of sales of an organization. Hospitality ethics is a discipline that studies this usage of hospitality. (en) +
A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment with specialized health science and auxiliary healthcare staff and medical equipment. The best-known type of hospital is the general hospital, which typically has an emergency department to treat urgent health problems ranging from fire and accident victims to a sudden illness. A district hospital typically is the major health care facility in its region, with many beds for intensive care and additional beds for patients who need long-term care. Specialized hospitals include trauma centers, rehabilitation hospitals, children's hospitals, seniors' (geriatric) hospitals, and hospitals for dealing with specific medical needs such as psychiatric treatment (see psychiatric hospital) and certain disease categories. Specialized hospitals can help reduce health care costs compared to general hospitals. Hospitals are classified as general, specialty, or government depending on the sources of income received. A teaching hospital combines assistance to people with teaching to health science students and auxiliary healthcare students. A health science facility smaller than a hospital is generally called a clinic. Hospitals have a range of departments (e.g. surgery and urgent care) and specialist units such as cardiology. Some hospitals have outpatient departments and some have chronic treatment units. Common support units include a pharmacy, pathology, and radiology. Hospitals are typically funded by public funding, health organisations (for-profit or nonprofit), health insurance companies, or charities, including direct charitable donations. Historically, hospitals were often founded and funded by religious orders, or by charitable individuals and leaders. Currently, hospitals are largely staffed by professional physicians, surgeons, nurses, and allied health practitioners, whereas in the past, this work was usually performed by the members of founding religious orders or by volunteers. However, there are various Catholic religious orders, such as the Alexians and the Bon Secours Sisters that still focus on hospital ministry in the late 1990s, as well as several other Christian denominations, including the Methodists and Lutherans, which run hospitals. In accordance with the original meaning of the word, hospitals were original "places of hospitality", and this meaning is still preserved in the names of some institutions such as the Royal Hospital Chelsea, established in 1681 as a retirement and nursing home for veteran soldiers. (en)
I
L'impact environnemental est l'ensemble des changements qualitatifs, quantitatifs et fonctionnels de l'environnement (négatifs ou positifs) engendrés par un projet, un processus, un procédé, un ou des organismes, ou un ou des produits, de sa conception à sa fin de vie. L'étude de l'impact environnemental est un outil utilisé par la norme ISO 14001 et dans l'analyse du cycle de vie. Des études d'impacts environnementales sur les milieux biophysique et humain sont requises pour une majorité de projets. Elles sont nécessaires et obligatoires pour les projets d'envergure et sont habituellement assorties de mesures d'atténuation et/ou de mitigation et/ou de mise en valeur et/ou de formules compensatoires et/ou de mesures de conservation ou de restauration. (fr) +, Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as quality of air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and pollution. It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. Environmental concerns can be defined as the negative effects of any human activity on the environment. The biological as well as the physical features of the environment are included. Some of the primary environmental challenges that are causing great worry are air pollution, water pollution, natural environment pollution, rubbish pollution, and so on.[2] Environmental degradation is one of the ten threats officially cautioned by the high-level PaneI on Threats, Challenges and Change of the United Nations. The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines environmental degradation as "the reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives, and needs". Environmental degradation comes in many types. When natural habitats are destroyed or natural resources are depleted, the environment is degraded. Efforts to counteract this problem include environmental protection and environmental resources management. Mismanagement that leads to degradation can also lead to environmental conflict where communities organize in opposition to the forces that mismanaged the environment. (en) +
L'agro-industrie est l'ensemble des industries ayant un lien direct avec l'agriculture. Cela comprend donc l'ensemble des systèmes de productions agricoles et s'étend à toutes les entreprises qui fournissent des biens à l'agriculture (engrais, pesticides, machines) ainsi qu'à celles qui transforment les produits agricoles et les conditionnent en produits commercialisables. En ce sens, le secteur agro-industriel ne se limite pas aux seuls produits alimentaires, domaine exclusif au secteur agroalimentaire, mais englobe aussi tous les secteurs parallèles de valorisation des agroressources : papiers, bioénergies, biomatériaux, cuirs, textiles, huiles essentielles, cosmétiques, tabac, etc.. (fr) +, Agribusiness is the industry, enterprises, and the field of study of value chains in agriculture and in the bio-economy,in which case it is also called bio-business or bio-enterprise. The primary goal of agribusiness is to maximize profit while sustainably satisfying the needs of consumers for products related to natural resources such as biotechnology, farms, food, forestry, fisheries, fuel, and fiber — usually with the exclusion of non-renewable resources such as mining. Studies of business growth and performance in farming have found successful agricultural businesses are cost-efficient internally and operate in favorable economic, political, and physical-organic environments. They are able to expand and make profits, improve the productivity of land, labor, and capital, and keep their costs down to ensure market price competitiveness. Agribusiness is not limited to farming. It encompasses a broader spectrum through the agribusiness system which includes input supplies, value-addition, marketing, entrepreneurship, microfinancing, and agricultural extension. In some countries like the Philippines, creation and management of agribusiness enterprises require consultation with registered agriculturists above a certain level of operations, capitalization, land area, or number of animals in the farm. (en) +
News is information about current events. This may be provided through many different media: word of mouth, printing, postal systems, broadcasting, electronic communication, or through the testimony of observers and witnesses to events. News is sometimes called "hard news" to differentiate it from soft media. Common topics for news reports include war, government, politics, education, health, the environment, economy, business, fashion, entertainment, and sport, as well as quirky or unusual events. Government proclamations, concerning royal ceremonies, laws, taxes, public health, and criminals, have been dubbed news since ancient times. Technological and social developments, often driven by government communication and espionage networks, have increased the speed with which news can spread, as well as influenced its content. Throughout history, people have transported new information through oral means. Having developed in China over centuries, newspapers became established in Europe during the early modern period. In the 20th century, radio and television became an important means of transmitting news. Whilst in the 21st, the internet has also begun to play a similar role. (en) +
L'innovation est la recherche constante d'améliorations de l'existant, par contraste avec l'invention, qui vise à créer du nouveau. Dans le domaine économique, l'innovation se traduit par la conception d'un nouveau produit, service, processus de fabrication ou d'organisation pouvant être directement mis en œuvre dans l'appareil productif et répondant aux besoins du consommateur. Elle se distingue ainsi de l'invention ou de la découverte par le fait qu'elle peut être immédiatement mise en œuvre par les entreprises, dans le but d'obtenir un avantage compétitif. Dans le domaine de l'ingénierie, l’innovation est un cœur de métier. Elle est la capacité qui permet de trouver des solutions à des problèmes complexes d'ordre technique, financier, organisationnel ou méthodique et qui par leur complexité ne peuvent pas s’obtenir simplement en appliquant des formules préétablies. Il s'agit de trouver des solutions, de mettre de nouvelles idées en œuvre d’un point de vue pratique en réponse à la complexité de projets de toute taille que réalisent les ingénieurs. De la conception à la mise sur le marché, l'innovation fait ainsi appel à des processus aux résultats incertains qui s'appuient sur des outils de management appropriés. Son utilisation en tant que buzzword en fait un terme très polysémique en pratique. On trouve ainsi de nombreuses expressions composites, dont innovation ouverte, innovation participative, innovation frugale, innovation inclusive, innovation incrémentale, innovation radicale, innovation révolutionnaire, innovation évolutive, innovation associative, innovation spasmodique. (fr) +, Innovation is the practical implementation of ideas that result in the introduction of new goods or services or improvement in offering goods or services. ISO TC 279 in the standard ISO 56000:2020 defines innovation as "a new or changed entity realizing or redistributing value". Others have different definitions; a common element in the definitions is a focus on newness, improvement, and spread of ideas or technologies. Innovation often takes place through the development of more-effective products, processes, services, technologies, art worksor business models that innovators make available to markets, governments and society. Innovation is related to, but not the same as, invention: innovation is more apt to involve the practical implementation of an invention (i.e. new / improved ability) to make a meaningful impact in a market or society, and not all innovations require a new invention. Technical innovation often manifests itself via the engineering process when the problem being solved is of a technical or scientific nature. The opposite of innovation is exnovation. (en) +
Open innovation is a term used to promote an information age mindset toward innovation that runs counter to the secrecy and silo mentality of traditional corporate research labs. The benefits and driving forces behind increased openness have been noted and discussed as far back as the 1960s, especially as it pertains to interfirm cooperation in R&D. Use of the term 'open innovation' in reference to the increasing embrace of external cooperation in a complex world has been promoted in particular by Henry Chesbrough, adjunct professor and faculty director of the Center for Open Innovation of the Haas School of Business at the University of California, and Maire Tecnimont Chair of Open Innovation at Luiss. The term was originally referred to as "a paradigm that assumes that firms can and should use external ideas as well as internal ideas, and internal and external paths to market, as the firms look to advance their technology". More recently, it is defined as "a distributed innovation process based on purposively managed knowledge flows across organizational boundaries, using pecuniary and non-pecuniary mechanisms in line with the organization's business model". This more recent definition acknowledges that open innovation is not solely firm-centric: it also includes creative consumers and communities of user innovators. The boundaries between a firm and its environment have become more permeable; innovations can easily transfer inward and outward between firms and other firms and between firms and creative consumers, resulting in impacts at the level of the consumer, the firm, an industry, and society. Because innovations tend to be produced by outsiders and founders in startups, rather than existing organizations, the central idea behind open innovation is that, in a world of widely distributed knowledge, companies cannot afford to rely entirely on their own research, but should instead buy or license processes or inventions (i.e. patents) from other companies. This is termed inbound open innovation. In addition, internal inventions not being used in a firm's business should be taken outside the company (e.g. through licensing, joint ventures or spin-offs). This is called outbound open innovation. The open innovation paradigm can be interpreted to go beyond just using external sources of innovation such as customers, rival companies, and academic institutions, and can be as much a change in the use, management, and employment of intellectual property as it is in the technical and research driven generation of intellectual property. In this sense, it is understood as the systematic encouragement and exploration of a wide range of internal and external sources for innovative opportunities, the integration of this exploration with firm capabilities and resources, and the exploitation of these opportunities through multiple channels. In addition, as open innovation explores a wide range of internal and external sources, it could be not just analyzed in the level of company, but also it can be analyzed at inter-organizational level, intra-organizational level, extra-organizational and at industrial, regional and society (Bogers et al., 2017). (en)
Social innovations are new social practices that aim to meet social needs in a better way than the existing solutions, resulting from - for example - working conditions, education, community development or health. These ideas are created with the goal of extending and strengthening civil society. Social innovation includes the social processes of innovation, such as open source methods and techniques and also the innovations which have a social purpose—like activism, virtual volunteering, microcredit, or distance learning. There are many definitions of social innovation, however, they usually include the broad criteria about social objectives, social interaction between actors or actor diversity, social outputs, and innovativeness (The innovation should be at least ”new” to the beneficiaries it targets, but it does not have to be new to the world). Different definitions include different combinations and different number of these criteria (e.g. EU is using definition stressing out social objectives and actors interaction). Transformative social innovation not only introduces new approaches to seemingly intractable problems, but is successful in changing the social institutions that created the problem in the first place. According to Herrero de Egaña B., social innovation is defined as "new or novel ways that society has to deal with Relevant Social Challenges (RSCh), that are more effective, efficient and sustainable or that generate greater impact than the previous ones and that contribute to making it stronger and more articulated". Prominent innovators associated with the term include Pakistani Akhter Hameed Khan, Bangladeshi Muhammad Yunus, the founder of Grameen Bank which pioneered the concept of microcredit for supporting innovations in many developing countries such as Asia, Africa and Latin America, and inspired programs like the Jindal Centre for Social Innovation & Entrepreneurship and Infolady Social Entrepreneurship Programme of Dnet (A Social Enterprise). (en)
