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La transmission sans fil est un mode de communication à distance utilisant des ondes électromagnétiques modulées comme vecteur. Avec celles-ci, les distances peuvent être courtes — quelques mètres pour le Bluetooth —, voire correspondre à des millions de kilomètres pour le réseau de communications avec l'espace lointain de la NASA. Les applications les plus courantes de la transmission sans fil incluent les téléphones portables, les GPS, les souris et les claviers d’ordinateur, les réseaux informatiques étendus (les WAN), les casques audio, les récepteurs radio et la télévision par satellite. Dans certaines gammes de fréquences (micro-ondes et radiofréquences faisant partie des rayonnements non ionisants, leurs effets biologiques et environnementaux, à certaines fréquences et intensités sont très discutés, en raison des résultats contradictoires de nombreuses études entreprises en lien avec le développement des communications sans fil et de la 5G).[pas clair] +
Wireless communication (or just wireless, when the context allows) is the transfer of information between two or more points without the use of an electrical conductor, optical fiber or other continuous guided medium for the transfer. The most common wireless technologies use radio waves. With radio waves, intended distances can be short, such as a few meters for Bluetooth or as far as millions of kilometers for deep-space radio communications. It encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable applications, including two-way radios, cellular telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wireless networking. Other examples of applications of radio wireless technology include GPS units, garage door openers, wireless computer mouse, keyboards and headsets, headphones, radio receivers, satellite television, broadcast television and cordless telephones. Somewhat less common methods of achieving wireless communications involve other electromagnetic phenomena, such as light and magnetic or electric fields, or the use of sound. The term wireless has been used twice in communications history, with slightly different meaning. It was initially used from about 1890 for the first radio transmitting and receiving technology, as in wireless telegraphy, until the new word radio replaced it around 1920. Radio sets in the UK and the English-speaking world that were not portable continued to be referred to as wireless sets into the 1960s. The term wireless was revived in the 1980s and 1990s mainly to distinguish digital devices that communicate without wires, such as the examples listed in the previous paragraph, from those that require wires or cables. This became its primary usage in the 2000s, due to the advent of technologies such as mobile broadband, Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. Wireless operations permit services, such as mobile and interplanetary communications, that are impossible or impractical to implement with the use of wires. The term is commonly used in the telecommunications industry to refer to telecommunications systems (e.g. radio transmitters and receivers, remote controls, etc.) which use some form of energy (e.g. radio waves and acoustic energy) to transfer information without the use of wires. Information is transferred in this manner over both short and long distances.
Communism (from Latin communis, 'common, universal') is a far-left sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology and current within the socialist movement whose goal is the establishment of a communist society, a socioeconomic order centered around common ownership of the means of production, distribution, and exchange which allocates products to everyone in the society. Communist society also involves the absence of private property, social classes, money, and the state. Communists often seek a voluntary state of self-governance, but disagree on the means to this end. This reflects a distinction between a more libertarian approach of communization, revolutionary spontaneity, and workers' self-management, and a more vanguardist or communist party-driven approach through the development of a constitutional socialist state followed by the withering away of the state. Variants of communism have been developed throughout history, including anarcho-communism and Marxist schools of thought, among others. Communism includes a variety of schools of thought which broadly include Marxism, Leninism, and libertarian communism as well as the political ideologies grouped around both. All of these different ideologies share the analysis that the current order of society stems from capitalism, its economic system and mode of production, that in this system there are two major social classes, that the relationship between these two classes is exploitative, and that this situation can only ultimately be resolved through a social revolution. The two classes are the proletariat (the working class), who make up the majority of the population within society and must sell their labor to survive, and the bourgeoisie (the capitalist class), a small minority that derives profit from employing the working class through private ownership of the means of production. According to this analysis, a communist revolution would put the working class in power and in turn, establish common ownership of property, which is the primary element in the transformation of society towards a communist mode of production. Communism in its modern form grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe, who blamed capitalism for the misery of urban factory workers. In the 20th century, several ostensibly Communist governments espousing Marxism–Leninism and its variants came into power, first in the Soviet Union with the Russian Revolution of 1917, and then in portions of Eastern Europe, Asia, and a few other regions after World War II. Along with social democracy, communism became the dominant political tendency within the international socialist movement by the early 1920s. During most of the 20th century, around one-third of the world's population lived under Communist governments. These governments were characterized by one-party rule and suppression of opposition and dissent. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, several previously Communist governments repudiated or abolished communism altogether. Afterwards, only a small number of Communist governments remained, which are China, Cuba, Laos, North Korea and Vietnam. While the emergence of the Soviet Union as the world's first nominally Communist state led to communism's widespread association with the Soviet economic model, several scholars posit that in practice the model functioned as a form of state capitalism. Public memory of 20th-century Communist states has been described as "a battleground" between the communist-sympathetic political left and the anti-communist political right. Many authors have written about excess deaths under Communist states and mortality rates, such as excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin.
Le communisme (du latin communis – commun, universel) est initialement un ensemble de doctrines politiques, issues du socialisme et, pour la plupart, du marxisme, s'opposant au capitalisme et visant à l'instauration d'une société sans classes sociales, sans salariat et une mise en place d'une totale socialisation économique et démocratique des moyens de production. Plus spécialement, ce terme est associé au mouvement communiste international né après la Première Guerre mondiale, fruit d'une scission de la IIe Internationale provoquée par les bolcheviks. Il renvoie également, dans le contexte de la guerre froide, à une alliance géopolitique (Bloc communiste) dominée par l'Union soviétique, ainsi qu'à une forme de régime politique, dictatorial ou totalitaire, caractérisé par la position exclusive du Parti communiste, la surveillance et la pression constante des polices politiques sur toutes les structures institutionnelles, sociales et économiques ainsi que sur les simples citoyens ainsi que par une économie planifiée instituée par la collectivisation. Dans son sens d'origine, le communisme est une forme d'organisation sociale sans classes, sans État et sans monnaie, où les biens matériels seraient partagés. Au XIXe siècle, le mot « communisme » entre dans le vocabulaire du socialisme. Il se rattache en particulier à l'œuvre de Karl Marx et Friedrich Engels — qui le reprennent à leur compte en 1848 dans le Manifeste du parti communiste — et, plus largement, à l'école de pensée marxiste, qui prône la fin du capitalisme via la collectivisation des moyens de production. En 1917, les bolcheviks, dirigés par Lénine, prennent le pouvoir en Russie lors de la révolution d'Octobre. Cet évènement change radicalement le sens du mot communisme : il désigne désormais un mouvement politique international, né d'une scission du socialisme, et qui se reconnaît dans le courant révolutionnaire incarné par les bolcheviks comme dans l'interprétation du marxisme par Lénine. Le communisme se présente désormais comme la véritable expression politique du mouvement ouvrier, au détriment de la social-démocratie dont il est issu. Selon cette acception, le communisme constitue l'un des phénomènes les plus importants du XXe siècle, qui a pu être qualifié de « siècle du communisme » tant cette idéologie y a tenu un rôle moteur. Lénine et ses partisans créent en 1919 l'Internationale communiste (dite Troisième Internationale, ou Komintern) afin de regrouper à l'échelle internationale les partisans de la Russie soviétique. L'Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques (URSS), fondée en 1922 pour fédérer les territoires de l'ex-Empire russe, dirige via le Komintern les activités des partis communistes du monde entier : elle domine ainsi la mouvance communiste, malgré l'existence de courants dissidents. Après la mort de Lénine, Joseph Staline s'impose comme le maître absolu de l'URSS. En 1941, durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, l'URSS est attaquée par l'Allemagne nazie, avec laquelle elle avait conclu un pacte deux ans plus tôt. Les troupes soviétiques jouent alors un rôle déterminant dans la défaite du nazisme. Après-guerre, l'URSS accède au rang de superpuissance : elle occupe militairement l'essentiel de l'Europe de l'Est, dont les pays deviennent des États communistes, formant le bloc de l'Est. La Chine bascule également dans le camp communiste en 1949. Le Rideau de fer qui sépare l'Europe et la progression spectaculaire du communisme amènent le monde à se diviser en « blocs » rivaux : la guerre froide oppose ainsi durant plusieurs décennies les pays communistes au « monde libre », au sein duquel les États-Unis constituent la superpuissance rivale de l'URSS. La Chine de Mao occupe quant à elle une place à part après la rupture sino-soviétique. À l'apogée de l'influence du communisme dans le monde, un quart de l'humanité vit dans des pays communistes. Dans les années 1980, l'URSS tente de remédier à ses difficultés économiques et politiques en lançant un mouvement de réformes, la perestroïka : mais ce processus aboutit à l'effondrement général des régimes communistes européens entre 1989 et 1991. Par la suite, bien qu'en net déclin, le communisme ne disparaît pas : si des partis anciennement communistes ont adopté d'autres identités, d'autres ont conservé leur nom et sont associés au pouvoir dans certains pays. À Cuba, au Viêt Nam, au Laos et en Corée du Nord, des pays communistes existent encore, sans se conformer à un mode de gouvernement unique. La république populaire de Chine, pays le plus peuplé de la planète, est toujours dirigée par un Parti communiste ; convertie à l'économie de marché, elle est aujourd'hui l'une des principales puissances mondiales. En tant que dictatures à parti unique, les régimes se réclamant du communisme se sont tous rendus coupables de violations des droits de l'homme ; certains, comme l'URSS sous Staline et la Chine sous Mao, ont commis des crimes de masse, le nombre de leurs victimes s'élevant à plusieurs millions de morts. Le bilan historique du communisme, qui englobe un ensemble de réalités très différentes les unes des autres, demeure cependant, du fait même de sa complexité, contrasté et polémique. Le communisme a fait l'objet de diverses approches historiographiques concurrentes, longtemps handicapées par la difficulté d'accès aux documents et par les contextes politiques nationaux et internationaux. La fin de la guerre froide et l'ouverture des archives du bloc de l'Est ont depuis bouleversé le champ des études sur le communisme, sans mettre fin à toutes les controverses autour du sujet.
A community garden is a piece of land gardened or cultivated by a group of people individually or collectively. Normally in community gardens, the land is divided into individual plots. Each individual gardener is responsible for their own plot and the yielding or the production of which belongs to the individual. In collective gardens the piece of land is not divided. A group of people cultivate it together and the harvest belongs to all participants. Around the world, community gardens exist in various forms, it can be located in the proximity of neighborhoods or on balconies and rooftops. Its size can vary greatly from one to another. Community gardens have experienced three waves of major development in North America. The earliest wave of community gardens development coincided with the industrial revolution and rapid urbanization process in Europe and North America; they were then called 'Jardin d'ouvrier' (or workers' garden). The second wave of community garden development happened during the WWI and WWII; they were part of "Liberty Gardens" and "Victory Gardens" respectively. The most recent wave of community garden development happened in the 1970s during the OPEC crisis, results of grassroots movement in quest for available land to combat against food insecurity. More recently, community gardens have seen a global resurgence. This may be related to several issues faced by the global population in the 21st century, such as ecological crisis, climate change and the new sanitary crisis. Community gardens contribute to the urban agriculture movement and the requests from citizens for more community gardens has been surging in recent years. +
Le jardin communautaire, partagé, associatif ou encore collectif, est un jardin rural ou urbain géré en commun par un groupe d’habitants. La dénomination de jardin partagé est celle choisie par l'État français depuis 2014 (bien que les autres appellations lui soient antérieures et restent largement utilisées dans le monde francophone) : « On entend par jardins partagés les jardins créés ou animés collectivement, ayant pour objet de développer des liens sociaux de proximité par le biais d’activités sociales, culturelles ou éducatives et étant accessibles au public. » +
A community land trust (CLT) is a nonprofit corporation that holds land on behalf of a place-based community, while serving as the long-term steward for affordable housing, community gardens, civic buildings, commercial spaces and other community assets on behalf of a community. CLTs balance the needs of individuals who want security of tenure in occupying and using land and housing, with the needs of the surrounding community, striving to secure a variety of social purposes such as maintaining the affordability of local housing, preventing the displacement of vulnerable residents, and promoting economic and racial inclusion. Across the world, there is enormous diversity among CLTs in the ways that real property is owned, used, and operated and the ways that the CLT itself is guided and governed by people living on and around a CLT’s land. +
A neighborhood commons is a shared community space where neighborhood residents can come together to celebrate life, and young and old can be in each other’s presence but not in each other’s way. It can be a small-scale, multi-use facility, combining a sitting area, tot lot, playground, park, and community garden, designed and constructed on one or more vacant lots by residents, volunteer professionals, and youth work teams. The term "neighborhood commons" was first widely used by landscape architect, educator, and psychologist Karl Linn, who guided the creation of many such spaces during the 1960s through 1980s, primarily in the northeastern United States. +
La concertation est l’action de débattre, dans le cadre d'un dialogue engagé entre tous les acteurs concernés, qui échangent leurs arguments, afin de prendre en compte les divers points de vue exprimés et de faire ainsi émerger l’intérêt général, en amont de la mise en forme d’une proposition, avant de s’accorder en vue d’un projet commun. La concertation se distingue de la négociation en ce qu’elle n’aboutit pas nécessairement à une décision, mais qu’elle vise à la préparer. C’est le cas par exemple lorsqu’une collectivité territoriale engage un processus de concertation avec la population locale dans la perspective d’un aménagement : la décision finale appartient aux élus qui seuls en détiennent formellement le pouvoir, mais qui devront intégrer les résultats de la concertation. La concertation se distingue de la consultation, laquelle se résume à une demande d’avis, en général sur un projet prédéfini, avis qui ne lie d’ailleurs pas le destinataire de la consultation. La véritable concertation exige l’ouverture à toutes les personnes intéressées, dès la conception du projet, et suppose la confrontation entre les parties, l’échange d’arguments, l’explicitation des points de vue de chacun. La concertation se distingue de la médiation en ce qu’elle ne fait pas intervenir un tiers pour faciliter la recherche d’un accord entre les parties. Les échanges sont animés par l’une des parties prenantes ou, dans certains cas, par un facilitateur lié à l’une d’entre elles. +
Public consultation (Commonwealth countries and European Union), public comment (US), or simply consultation, is a regulatory process by which the public's input on matters affecting them is sought. Its main goals are in improving the efficiency, transparency and public involvement in large-scale projects or laws and policies. It usually involves notification (to publicise the matter to be consulted on), consultation (a two-way flow of information and opinion exchange) as well as participation (involving interest groups in the drafting of policy or legislation). A frequently used tool for understanding different levels of community participation in consultation is known as Arnstein's ladder, although some academics contest that Arnstein's ladder is contextually specific and was not intended to be a universal tool. Ineffective consultations are considered to be cosmetic consultations that were done due to obligation or show and not true participatory decision making. Public comment (or "vox populi") is a public meeting of government bodies which set aside time for public comments, usually upon documents. Such documents may either be reports such as Draft Environmental Impact Reports (DEIR's) or new regulations. There is typically a notice which is posted on the web and mailed to lists of interested parties known to the government agencies. If there is to be a change of regulations, there will be a formal notice of proposed rulemaking. The basis for public comment is found in general political theory of constitutional democracy as originated during and after the Enlightenment, particularly by Rousseau. This basis was elaborated in the American Revolution, and various thinkers such as Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson and Thomas Paine are associated with the rejection of tyrannical, closed government decision making in favor of open government. The tradition of the New England Town Hall is believed to be rooted in this early American movement, and the distillation of formal public comment in official proceedings in the United States is a direct application of this format in the workings of public administration itself.
Divers philosophes, psychologues et chercheurs en sciences sociales ont travaillé sur la notion de confiance qui, selon une définition assez largement acceptée, peut être entendue comme « un état psychologique se caractérisant par l'intention d'accepter la vulnérabilité sur la base de croyances optimistes sur les intentions (ou le comportement) d'autrui ». La confiance renvoie à l’idée que l’on peut se fier à quelqu’un ou à quelque chose. Dans l’étymologie latine, le verbe confier (du latin confidere : cum, « avec » et fidere « fier ») signifie qu’on remet quelque chose de précieux à quelqu’un, en se fiant à lui et en s’abandonnant ainsi à sa bienveillance et à sa bonne foi. Cette origine souligne les liens étroits qui existent entre la confiance, l'espoir, la foi, la fidélité, la confidence, le crédit et la croyance. Confiance est aussi une des vertus chrétiennes plus importantes, particulièrement dans la dévotion à la divine miséricorde. +
Knowledge can be defined as awareness of facts or as practical skills, and may also refer to familiarity with objects or situations. Knowledge of facts, also called propositional knowledge, is often defined as true belief that is distinct from opinion or guesswork by virtue of justification. While there is wide agreement among philosophers that propositional knowledge is a form of true belief, many controversies in philosophy focus on justification: whether it is needed at all, how to understand it, and whether something else besides it is needed. These controversies intensified due to a series of thought experiments by Edmund Gettier and have provoked various alternative definitions. Some of them deny that justification is necessary and replace it, for example, with reliability or the manifestation of cognitive virtues. Others contend that justification is needed but formulate additional requirements, for example, that no defeaters of the belief are present or that the person would not have the belief if it was false. Knowledge can be produced in many different ways. The most important source of empirical knowledge is perception, which refers to the usage of the senses. Many theorists also include introspection as a source of knowledge, not of external physical objects, but of one's own mental states. Other sources often discussed include memory, rational intuition, inference, and testimony. According to foundationalism, some of these sources are basic in the sense that they can justify beliefs without depending on other mental states. This claim is rejected by coherentists, who contend that a sufficient degree of coherence among all the mental states of the believer is necessary for knowledge. Many different aspects of knowledge are investigated and it plays a role in various disciplines. It is the primary subject of the field of epistemology, which studies what we know, how we come to know it, and what it means to know something. The problem of the value of knowledge concerns the question of why knowledge is more valuable than mere true belief. Philosophical skepticism is the controversial thesis that we lack any form of knowledge or that knowledge is impossible. Formal epistemology studies, among other things, the rules governing how knowledge and related states behave and in what relations they stand to each other. Science tries to acquire knowledge using the scientific method, which is based on repeatable experimentation, observation, and measurement. Many religions hold that humans should seek knowledge and that God or the divine is the source of knowledge.
La connaissance est une notion aux sens multiples, à la fois utilisée dans le langage courant et objet d'étude poussée de la part des sciences cognitives et des philosophes contemporains. La gnoséologie accumule la connaissance en général, de même que la science accumule les connaissances scientifiques. Les connaissances, leur nature et leur variété, la façon dont elles sont acquises, leur processus d'acquisition, leur valeur et leur rôle dans les sociétés humaines, sont étudiés par une diversité de disciplines, notamment la philosophie, l'épistémologie, la psychologie, les sciences cognitives, l'anthropologie et la sociologie. +
A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed. When these principles are written down into a single document or set of legal documents, those documents may be said to embody a written constitution; if they are encompassed in a single comprehensive document, it is said to embody a codified constitution. The Constitution of the United Kingdom is a notable example of an uncodified constitution; it is instead written in numerous fundamental Acts of a legislature, court cases or treaties. Constitutions concern different levels of organizations, from sovereign countries to companies and unincorporated associations. A treaty which establishes an international organization is also its constitution, in that it would define how that organization is constituted. Within states, a constitution defines the principles upon which the state is based, the procedure in which laws are made and by whom. Some constitutions, especially codified constitutions, also act as limiters of state power, by establishing lines which a state's rulers cannot cross, such as fundamental rights. The Constitution of India is the longest written constitution of any country in the world, with 146,385 words in its English-language version, while the Constitution of Monaco is the shortest written constitution with 3,814 words. The Constitution of San Marino might be the world's oldest active written constitution, since some of its core documents have been in operation since 1600, while the Constitution of the United States is the oldest active codified constitution. The historical life expectancy of a constitution since 1789 is approximately 19 years. +
Une constitution est une loi fondamentale qui fixe l'organisation et le fonctionnement d'un organisme, généralement d'un État ou d'un ensemble d'États. Le terme s'écrit parfois avec une majuscule initiale : Constitution. La valeur de la constitution d'un État varie selon le régime en place, elle a généralement une valeur supérieure à la loi. Elle est à la fois l'acte politique et la loi fondamentale qui unit et régit de manière organisée et hiérarchisée l’ensemble des rapports entre gouvernants et gouvernés au sein de cet État, en tant qu'unité d'espace géographique et humain. La constitution protège les droits et les libertés des citoyens contre les abus de pouvoir potentiels des titulaires des pouvoirs (exécutif, législatif, et judiciaire). Si la fiction juridique veut que la constitution fonde et encadre juridiquement l'État, il est entendu que l'histoire politique la précède et peut lui conférer à la fois sa légitimité circonstanciée et la permanence de son autorité. Cette histoire politique est alors réintroduite dans le droit en étant qualifiée de « pouvoir constituant primaire » (le pouvoir souverain qui établit une nouvelle Constitution). Plusieurs pays célèbrent officiellement l'adoption de leur constitution (Fête ou Jour de la constitution ou « Constitution Day » en anglais). Le terme « constitution » est également utilisé pour désigner les règles fondamentales d'organisations autres que des États souverains : on peut ainsi parler de la constitution de l'OIT, du projet de constitution européenne ou de la constitution civile du clergé. Il serait toutefois plus correct, pour ces organisations, d'employer les termes de traité ou d'« acte fondateur ». Dans des États fédéraux, les États fédérés peuvent avoir aussi leurs propres constitutions, comme la Californie aux États-Unis. +
A cooperative (also known as co-operative, co-op, or coop) is "an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically-controlled enterprise". Cooperatives are democratically controlled by their members, with each member having one vote in electing the board of directors.Cooperatives may include:
* businesses owned and managed by the people who consume their goods and/or services (a consumer cooperative)
* businesses where producers pool their output for their common benefit (a producer cooperative)
* organizations managed by the people who work there (a worker cooperative)
* businesses where members pool their purchasing power (a purchasing cooperative)
* multi-stakeholder or hybrid cooperatives that share ownership between different stakeholder groups. For example, care cooperatives where ownership is shared between both care-givers and receivers. Stakeholders might also include non-profits or investors.
* second- and third-tier cooperatives whose members are other cooperatives
* platform cooperatives that use a cooperatively owned and governed website, mobile app or a protocol to facilitate the sale of goods and services. Research published by the Worldwatch Institute found that in 2012 approximately one billion people in 96 countries had become members of at least one cooperative. The turnover of the largest three hundred cooperatives in the world reached $2.2 trillion. Cooperative businesses are typically more productive and economically resilient than many other forms of enterprise, with twice the number of co-operatives (80%) surviving their first five years compared with other business ownership models (41%) according to data from United Kingdom. The largest worker owned cooperative in the world, the Mondragon Corporation (founded by Catholic priest José María Arizmendiarrieta), has been in continuous operation since 1956. Cooperatives frequently have social goals, which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6.9% of their pre-tax profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2.4% for other rival supermarkets. Since 2002, cooperatives have been distinguishable on the Internet through the use of a .coop domain. In 2014, the International Co-operative Alliance (ICA) introduced the Cooperative Marque, meaning ICA cooperatives and WOCCU credit unions can also be identified through a coop ethical consumerism label.
Une coopérative est la combinaison d'un regroupement de personnes et d'une entreprise fondée sur la participation économique des membres, en capital et en opérations. Son organisation et son fonctionnement sont caractérisés par des principes et des valeurs qui confèrent à chaque coopérative un caractère universel, quel que soit son objet ou son secteur d'activité. Une partie de ces principes et valeurs, comme la démocratie à travers l'égalité de voix entre les membres, est traduite en norme juridique. L'identité coopérative s'identifie par sept principes de coopération. Ainsi, pour les prises de décision, elle repose sur le principe démocratique « une personne = une voix » qui devra élire un conseil d'administration qui nommera un directeur général. Les salariés et les membres-usagers sont ainsi tous égaux en droit. +
Cooperation (written as co-operation in British English) is the process of groups of organisms working or acting together for common, mutual, or some underlying benefit, as opposed to working in competition for selfish benefit. Many animal and plant species cooperate both with other members of their own species and with members of other species (symbiosis or mutualism). +
La coopération est une forme d'organisation collective qui entend promouvoir dans le domaine économique et social un système fondé sur une vision partagée des différents acteurs, dans un esprit d'intérêt général, au service de toutes les parties prenantes. Cela suppose un certain degré de confiance et de compréhension. La coopération, antagoniste à l'esprit de concurrence entendu sous sa forme libérale, conduit à réviser les modes de fonctionnement ainsi que les relations économiques pour les subordonner à la réalisation de finalités plus sociales et plus solidaires. Cette recherche du bien commun peut se manifester sous une pluralité de formes :
* sous des formes spontanées, souvent individuelles, en particulier avec les systèmes d'échanges locaux (SEL)
* sous des formes organisées avec l'instauration de structures d'économie sociale, par l'initiation et la propagation de comportements d'économie solidaire) ou par l'emploi de nouvelles formes de contrats (Cf l'exemple des logiciels libres avec le principe de copyleft). +
A cooperative (also known as co-operative, co-op, or coop) is "an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically-controlled enterprise". Cooperatives are democratically controlled by their members, with each member having one vote in electing the board of directors.Cooperatives may include:
* businesses owned and managed by the people who consume their goods and/or services (a consumer cooperative)
* businesses where producers pool their output for their common benefit (a producer cooperative)
* organizations managed by the people who work there (a worker cooperative)
* businesses where members pool their purchasing power (a purchasing cooperative)
* multi-stakeholder or hybrid cooperatives that share ownership between different stakeholder groups. For example, care cooperatives where ownership is shared between both care-givers and receivers. Stakeholders might also include non-profits or investors.
* second- and third-tier cooperatives whose members are other cooperatives
* platform cooperatives that use a cooperatively owned and governed website, mobile app or a protocol to facilitate the sale of goods and services. Research published by the Worldwatch Institute found that in 2012 approximately one billion people in 96 countries had become members of at least one cooperative. The turnover of the largest three hundred cooperatives in the world reached $2.2 trillion. Cooperative businesses are typically more productive and economically resilient than many other forms of enterprise, with twice the number of co-operatives (80%) surviving their first five years compared with other business ownership models (41%) according to data from United Kingdom. The largest worker owned cooperative in the world, the Mondragon Corporation (founded by Catholic priest José María Arizmendiarrieta), has been in continuous operation since 1956. Cooperatives frequently have social goals, which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6.9% of their pre-tax profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2.4% for other rival supermarkets. Since 2002, cooperatives have been distinguishable on the Internet through the use of a .coop domain. In 2014, the International Co-operative Alliance (ICA) introduced the Cooperative Marque, meaning ICA cooperatives and WOCCU credit unions can also be identified through a coop ethical consumerism label.
