Attribut:Résumé DBP
De Remix Biens Communs
Cette propriété est de type Monolingual text.
M
La notion de mouvement social est définie de manière différente selon les disciplines. En histoire, il s'agit de l'ensemble des événements au cours desquels certains groupes (comme des classes sociales) cherchent à modifier l'organisation de la société en fonction de leurs idéaux : répartition des richesses et du pouvoir politique, progrès social. En politique, et par métonymie, un mouvement social est une somme d'actions qui veulent la concrétisation de cette volonté de progrès social. On parle parfois de mouvement politique. En sociologie, un mouvement social est un ensemble de réseaux informels d'organisations et d'acteurs isolés, construit sur des valeurs partagées et de la solidarité dans marqué par « un agir ensemble intentionnel, marqué par le projet des protagonistes de se mobiliser de concert selon une logique de revendicatif et de défense d’intérêt ou d’une cause. (fr) +, A social movement is a loosely organized effort by a large group of people to achieve a particular goal, typically a social or political one. This may be to carry out a social change, or to resist or undo one. It is a type of group action and may involve individuals, organizations, or both. Social movements have been described as "organizational structures and strategies that may empower oppressed populations to mount effective challenges and resist the more powerful and advantaged elites". They represent a method of social change from the bottom within nations. Political science and sociology have developed a variety of theories and empirical research on social movements. For example, some research in political science highlights the relation between popular movements and the formation of new political parties as well as discussing the function of social movements in relation to agenda setting and influence on politics. Sociologists distinguish between several types of social movement examining things such as scope, type of change, method of work, range, and time frame. Some scholars have argued that modern Western social movements became possible through education (the wider dissemination of literature) and increased mobility of labor due to the industrialization and urbanization of 19th-century societies. It is sometimes argued that the freedom of expression, education and relative economic independence prevalent in the modern Western culture are responsible for the unprecedented number and scope of various contemporary social movements. Many of the social movements of the last hundred years grew up, like the Mau Mau in Kenya, to oppose Western colonialism. Social movements have been and continue to be closely connected with democratic political systems. Occasionally, social movements have been involved in democratizing nations, but more often they have flourished after democratization. Over the past 200 years, they have become part of a popular and global expression of dissent. Modern movements often use technology and the internet to mobilize people globally. Adapting to communication trends is a common theme among successful movements. Research is beginning to explore how advocacy organizations linked to social movements in the U.S. and Canada use social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action. (en)
Le municipalisme libertaire désigne la mise en œuvre locale de l'écologie sociale élaborée par le théoricien communiste libertaire et écologiste politique américain Murray Bookchin. Cette dimension écologiste le distingue du communalisme traditionnel tel qu'il fut proposé par les communes insurrectionnelles en France en 1870-1871 qui est davantage restreint au changement de système politique (remplacement de la démocratie représentative par la démocratie directe) sans promotion d'une autre forme d'idéologie. Ces termes sont utilisés pour décrire un système politique dans lequel des institutions libertaires, composées d'assemblées de citoyens, dans un esprit de démocratie directe, remplaceraient l'État-nation par une confédération de municipalités ou communes libres et autogérées. Le projet repose sur l'idée que la commune constitue une cellule de base capable d'initier une transformation sociale radicale par propagation. (fr) +,
A municipality is usually a single administrative division having corporate status and powers of self-government or jurisdiction as granted by national and regional laws to which it is subordinate. The term municipality may also mean the governing body of a given municipality. A municipality is a general-purpose administrative subdivision, as opposed to a special-purpose district. The term is derived from French municipalité and Latin municipalis. The English word municipality derives from the Latin social contract municipium (derived from a word meaning "duty holders"), referring to the Latin communities that supplied Rome with troops in exchange for their own incorporation into the Roman state (granting Roman citizenship to the inhabitants) while permitting the communities to retain their own local governments (a limited autonomy). A municipality can be any political jurisdiction, from a sovereign state such as the Principality of Monaco, to a small village such as West Hampton Dunes, New York. The territory over which a municipality has jurisdiction may encompass
* only one populated place such as a city, town, or village
* several such places (e.g., early jurisdictions in the U.S. state of New Jersey (1798–1899) as townships governing several villages, municipalities of Mexico, municipalities of Colombia)
* only parts of such places, sometimes boroughs of a city, such as the 34 municipalities of Santiago, Chile. (en) +
Music is generally defined as the art of arranging sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm or otherwise expressive content. Exact definitions of music vary considerably around the world, though it is an aspect of all human societies, a cultural universal. While scholars agree that music is defined by a few specific elements, there is no consensus on their precise definitions. The creation of music is commonly divided into musical composition, musical improvisation, and musical performance, though the topic itself extends into , criticism, philosophy, and psychology. Music may be performed or improvised using a vast range of instruments, including the human voice. In some musical contexts, a performance or composition may be to some extent improvised. For instance, in Hindustani classical music, the performer plays spontaneously while following a partially defined structure and using characteristic motifs. In modal jazz the performers may take turns leading and responding, while sharing a changing set of notes. In a free jazz context, there may be no structure whatsoever, with each performer acting at their discretion. Music may be deliberately composed to be unperformable, or agglomerated electronically from many performances. Music is played in public and private areas, highlighted at events such as festivals, rock concerts, and orchestra performance, and heard incidentally as part of a score or soundtrack to a film, TV show, opera, or video game. Musical playback is the primary function of an MP3 player or CD player and a universal feature of radios and smartphones. Music often plays a key role in social activities, religious rituals, rite of passage ceremonies, celebrations, and cultural activities. The music industry includes songwriters, performers, sound engineers, producers, tour organizers, distributors of instruments, accessories, and sheet music. Compositions, performances, and recordings are assessed and evaluated by music critics, music journalists, and music scholars, as well as amateurs. (en)
N
New Public Management (NPM) is an approach to running public service organizations that is used in government and public service institutions and agencies, at both sub-national and national levels. The term was first introduced by academics in the UK and Australia to describe approaches that were developed during the 1980s as part of an effort to make the public service more "businesslike" and to improve its efficiency by using private sector management models. As with the private sector, which focuses on customer service, NPM reforms often focused on the "centrality of citizens who were the recipient of the services or customers to the public sector". NPM reformers experimented with using decentralized service delivery models, to give local agencies more freedom in how they delivered programs or services. In some cases, NPM reforms that used e-government consolidated a program or service to a central location to reduce costs. Some governments tried using quasi-market structures, so that the public sector would have to compete against the private sector (notably in the UK, in health care). Key themes in NPM were "financial control, value for money, increasing efficiency ..., identifying and setting targets and continuance monitoring of performance, handing over ... power to the senior management" executives. Performance was assessed with audits, benchmarks and performance evaluations. Some NPM reforms used private sector companies to deliver what were formerly public services. NPM advocates in some countries worked to remove "collective agreements [in favour of] ... individual rewards packages at senior levels combined with short term contracts" and introduce private sector-style corporate governance, including using a Board of Directors approach to strategic guidance for public organizations. While NPM approaches have been used in many countries around the world, NPM is particularly associated with the most industrialized OECD nations such as the United Kingdom, Australia and the United States of America. NPM advocates focus on using approaches from the private sector – the corporate or business world–which can be successfully applied in the public sector and in a public administration context. NPM approaches have been used to reform the public sector, its policies and its programs. NPM advocates claim that it is a more efficient and effective means of attaining the same outcome. In NPM, citizens are viewed as "customers" and public servants are viewed as public managers. NPM tries to realign the relationship between public service managers and their political superiors by making a parallel relationship between the two. Under NPM, public managers have incentive-based motivation such as pay-for-performance, and clear performance targets are often set, which are assessed by using performance evaluations. As well, managers in an NPM paradigm may have greater discretion and freedom as to how they go about achieving the goals set for them. This NPM approach is contrasted with the traditional public administration model, in which institutional decision-making, policy-making and public service delivery is guided by regulations, legislation and administrative procedures. NPM reforms use approaches such as disaggregation, customer satisfaction initiatives, customer service efforts, applying an entrepreneurial spirit to public service, and introducing innovations. The NPM system allows "the expert manager to have a greater discretion". "Public Managers under the New Public Management reforms can provide a range of choices from which customers can choose, including the right to opt out of the service delivery system completely". (en)
A domain name is a string that identifies a realm of administrative autonomy, authority or control within the Internet. Domain names are often used to identify services provided through the Internet, such as websites, email services and more. As of 2017, 330.6 million domain names had been registered. Domain names are used in various networking contexts and for application-specific naming and addressing purposes. In general, a domain name identifies a network domain or an Internet Protocol (IP) resource, such as a personal computer used to access the Internet, or a server computer. Domain names are formed by the rules and procedures of the Domain Name System (DNS). Any name registered in the DNS is a domain name. Domain names are organized in subordinate levels (subdomains) of the DNS root domain, which is nameless. The first-level set of domain names are the top-level domains (TLDs), including the generic top-level domains (gTLDs), such as the prominent domains com, info, net, edu, and org, and the country code top-level domains (ccTLDs). Below these top-level domains in the DNS hierarchy are the second-level and third-level domain names that are typically open for reservation by end-users who wish to connect local area networks to the Internet, create other publicly accessible Internet resources or run web sites. The registration of a second- or third-level domain name is usually administered by a domain name registrar who sell its services to the public. A fully qualified domain name (FQDN) is a domain name that is completely specified with all labels in the hierarchy of the DNS, having no parts omitted. Traditionally a FQDN ends in a dot (.) to denote the top of the DNS tree. Labels in the Domain Name System are case-insensitive, and may therefore be written in any desired capitalization method, but most commonly domain names are written in lowercase in technical contexts. (en) +
O
Open data is data that is openly accessible, exploitable, editable and shared by anyone for any purpose. Open data is licensed under an open license. The goals of the open data movement are similar to those of other "open(-source)" movements such as open-source software, hardware, open content, open specifications, open education, open educational resources, open government, open knowledge, open access, open science, and the open web. The growth of the open data movement is paralleled by a rise in intellectual property rights. The philosophy behind open data has been long established (for example in the Mertonian tradition of science), but the term "open data" itself is recent, gaining popularity with the rise of the Internet and World Wide Web and, especially, with the launch of open-data government initiatives such as Data.gov, Data.gov.uk and Data.gov.in. Open data can be linked data - referred to as linked open data. One of the most important forms of open data is open government data (OGD), which is a form of open data created by ruling government institutions. Open government data's importance is born from it being a part of citizens' everyday lives, down to the most routine/mundane tasks that are seemingly far removed from government. The abbreviation FAIR/O data is sometimes used to indicate that the dataset or database in question complies with the principles of FAIR data and carries an explicit data‑capable open license. (en) +
Open source is source code that is made freely available for possible modification and redistribution. Products include permission to use the source code, design documents, or content of the product. The open-source model is a decentralized software development model that encourages open collaboration.A main principle of open-source software development is peer production, with products such as source code, blueprints, and documentation freely available to the public. The open-source movement in software began as a response to the limitations of proprietary code. The model is used for projects such as in open-source appropriate technology, and open-source drug discovery. Open source promotes universal access via an open-source or free license to a product's design or blueprint, and universal redistribution of that design or blueprint. Before the phrase open source became widely adopted, developers and producers have used a variety of other terms. Open source gained hold with the rise of the Internet. The open-source software movement arose to clarify copyright, licensing, domain, and consumer issues. Generally, open source refers to a computer program in which the source code is available to the general public for use or modification from its original design. Code is released under the terms of a software license. Depending on the license terms, others may then download, modify, and publish their version (fork) back to the community. Many large formal institutions have sprung up to support the development of the open-source movement, including the Apache Software Foundation, which supports community projects such as the open-source framework Apache Hadoop and the open-source HTTP server Apache HTTP. (en) +
A nonprofit organization (NPO) or non-profit organisation, also known as a non-business entity, not-for-profit organization, or nonprofit institution, is a legal entity organized and operated for a collective, public or social benefit, in contrast with an entity that operates as a business aiming to generate a profit for its owners. A nonprofit is subject to the non-distribution constraint: any revenues that exceed expenses must be committed to the organization's purpose, not taken by private parties. An array of organizations are nonprofit, including some political organizations, schools, business associations, churches, social clubs, and consumer cooperatives. Nonprofit entities may seek approval from governments to be tax-exempt, and some may also qualify to receive tax-deductible contributions, but an entity may incorporate as a nonprofit entity without securing tax-exempt status. Key aspects of nonprofits are accountability, trustworthiness, honesty, and openness to every person who has invested time, money, and faith into the organization. Nonprofit organizations are accountable to the donors, founders, volunteers, program recipients, and the public community. Theoretically, for a nonprofit that seeks to finance its operations through donations, public confidence is a factor in the amount of money that a nonprofit organization is able to raise. Supposedly, the more nonprofits focus on their mission, the more public confidence they will have. This will result in more money for the organization. The activities a nonprofit is partaking in can help build the public's confidence in nonprofits, as well as how ethical the standards and practices are. (en) +
P
, Peer-to-peer (P2P) computing or networking is a distributed application architecture that partitions tasks or workloads between peers. Peers are equally privileged, equipotent participants in the network. They are said to form a peer-to-peer network of nodes. Peers make a portion of their resources, such as processing power, disk storage or network bandwidth, directly available to other network participants, without the need for central coordination by servers or stable hosts. Peers are both suppliers and consumers of resources, in contrast to the traditional client–server model in which the consumption and supply of resources are divided. While P2P systems had previously been used in many application domains, the architecture was popularized by the file sharing system Napster, originally released in 1999. The concept has inspired new structures and philosophies in many areas of human interaction. In such social contexts, peer-to-peer as a meme refers to the egalitarian social networking that has emerged throughout society, enabled by Internet technologies in general. (en) +
Le partenariat public-privé (PPP) est un mode de financement par lequel une autorité publique fait appel à des prestataires privés pour financer et gérer un équipement assurant ou contribuant au service public. Le partenaire privé reçoit en contrepartie un paiement du partenaire public ou des usagers du service qu'il gère. Ce mode de financement est présent dans de nombreux pays sous des formes variées. L'expression « partenariat public-privé » désigne des projets plus récents, dans la lignée des contrats d' (en), en anglais private finance initiative, apparus en Grande-Bretagne depuis 1992 ; contrats dont se sont inspirés de nombreux pays. Un exemple typique de partenariat public-privé consiste pour un entrepreneur privé à construire un hôpital public dont il gérera ensuite les activités non médicales. (fr) +, , Una alianza público-privada, colaboración público-privada, iniciativa público-privada o asociación público-privada (escrito frecuentemente con guion y a veces sin él) es un acuerdo entre al menos un actor del sector público y al menos un actor del sector privado para la prestación de un servicio público. Estos acuerdos suelen abreviarse en español con las siglas APP (invariables ya sea singular o plural) y en inglés, con PPP, P3 o 3P en singular y PPPs en plural. Los poderes públicos han utilizado diferentes combinaciones de esfuerzos públicos y privados a lo largo de la historia. Sin embargo, desde 1970 se observa en el mundo una clara tendencia a hacer un mayor uso de diversas fórmulas APP. (es) +
, , La participación política es el conjunto de acciones llevadas a cabo por los ciudadanos que no están necesariamente involucrados en la política de forma directa, y cuya acción pretende influir en el proceso político y en el resultado del mismo. En otras palabras, la participación política describe , directas o indirectas que realizan los ciudadanos para influir en las decisiones o en la elección de los gobernantes y se puede llevar a cabo de forma convencional, por ejemplo, la participación electoral y el activismo partidario o de forma no convencional como las actividades de protesta y el contacto con las autoridades. Para comprender la idea de participación política, primero se ha de plantear el concepto de política, que para este caso, se podría describir como el mecanismo social de resolución de conflictos entre colectivos con intereses diferentes, donde un mayor grado de complejidad social acarrearía un número mayor de intereses distintos. Partiendo de esta explicación, el político sería el individuo encargado de llevar a cabo acuerdos entre intereses confrontados con el fin de encontrar una solución común a todos ellos, o en su defecto, buscar una forma de que estos no perjudiquen al orden y al sistema político. El político, por tanto, es aquel que resuelve los conflictos mediante el manejo de voluntades para lograr o alcanzar un bien común para todos. Dentro de este contexto, la participación política y la participación ciudadana se encuentran relacionadas. Vinculado a la participación ciudadana está el compromiso que consiste en trabajar para promover la calidad de vida de la comunidad mediante procesos políticos y no políticos e involucra el desarrollo de conocimientos como los derechos y obligaciones de los ciudadanos, habilidades para comunicar y difundir opiniones, valores como la responsabilidad y compromiso y en conjunto con la motivación hacer esta diferencia. (es) +
, Civic engagement or civic participation is any individual or group activity addressing issues of public concern. Civic engagement includes communities working together or individuals working alone in both political and non-political actions to protect public values or make a change in a community. The goal of civic engagement is to address public concerns and promote the quality of the community. Civic engagement is "a process in which people take collective action to address issues of public concern" and is "instrumental to democracy" (Checkoway & Aldana, 2012). Underrepresentation of groups in the government causes issues faced by groups such as minority, low-income, and younger groups to be overlooked or ignored. In turn, issues for higher voting groups are addressed more frequently, causing more bills to be passed to fix these problems (Griffin & Newman, 2008). (en) +,
, Scalability is the property of a system to handle a growing amount of work by adding resources to the system. In an economic context, a scalable business model implies that a company can increase sales given increased resources. For example, a package delivery system is scalable because more packages can be delivered by adding more delivery vehicles. However, if all packages had to first pass through a single warehouse for sorting, the system would not be as scalable, because one warehouse can handle only a limited number of packages. In computing, scalability is a characteristic of computers, networks, algorithms, networking protocols, programs and applications. An example is a search engine, which must support increasing numbers of users, and the number of topics it indexes. Webscale is a computer architectural approach that brings the capabilities of large-scale cloud computing companies into enterprise data centers. In mathematics, scalability mostly refers to closure under scalar multiplication. (en) +, Es un anglicismo que describe la capacidad de un negocio o sistema de crecer en magnitud. Aunque la palabra escalabilidad no existe en el diccionario de la RAE el adjetivo más cercano ampliable es de poco uso en telecomunicaciones y en ingeniería informática. La escalabilidad, término tomado en préstamo del idioma inglés, es la propiedad deseable de un sistema, una red o un proceso, que indica su habilidad para reaccionar y adaptarse sin perder calidad, o bien manejar el crecimiento continuo de trabajo de manera fluida, o bien para estar preparado para hacerse más grande sin perder calidad en los servicios ofrecidos. En general, también se podría definir como la capacidad del sistema informático de cambiar su tamaño o configuración para adaptarse a las circunstancias cambiantes. Por ejemplo, una Universidad que establece una red de usuarios por Internet para un edificio de docentes y no solamente quiere que su sistema informático tenga capacidad para acoger a los actuales clientes que son todos profesores, sino también a los clientes que pueda tener en el futuro dado que hay profesores visitantes que requieren de la red por algunas aplicaciones académicas, para esto es necesario implementar soluciones que permitan el crecimiento de la red sin que la posibilidad de su uso y reutilización disminuya o que pueda cambiar su configuración si es necesario. La escalabilidad como propiedad de los sistemas es generalmente difícil de definir, en particular es necesario definir los requisitos específicos para la escalabilidad en esas dimensiones donde se crea que son importantes. Es una edición altamente significativa en sistemas electrónicos, bases de datos, ruteadores y redes. A un sistema cuyo rendimiento es mejorado después de haberle añadido más capacidad hardware, proporcionalmente a la capacidad añadida, se dice que pasa a ser un sistema escalable. (es) +
Le patrimoine culturel se définit comme l'ensemble des biens, matériels ou immatériels, ayant une importance artistique et/ou historique certaine, et qui appartiennent soit à une entité privée (personne, entreprise, association, etc.), soit à une entité publique (commune, département, région, pays, etc.) ; cet ensemble de biens culturels est généralement préservé, restauré, sauvegardé et montré au public, soit de façon exceptionnelle (comme les Journées européennes du patrimoine qui ont lieu un week-end au mois de septembre), soit de façon régulière (château, musée, église, etc.), gratuitement ou au contraire moyennant un droit d'entrée et de visite payant.
* Le patrimoine dit « matériel » est surtout constitué des paysages construits, de l'architecture et de l'urbanisme, des sites archéologiques et géologiques, de certains aménagements de l'espace agricole ou forestier, d'objets d'art et mobilier, du patrimoine industriel (outils, instruments, machines, bâti, etc.).
* Le patrimoine dit « immatériel » peut revêtir différentes formes : chants, coutumes, danses, traditions gastronomiques, jeux, mythes, contes et légendes, petits métiers, témoignages, captation de techniques et de savoir-faire, documents écrits et d'archives (dont audiovisuelles), etc. Le patrimoine fait appel à l'idée d'un héritage légué par les générations qui nous ont précédés, et que nous devons transmettre intact ou augmenté aux générations futures, ainsi qu'à la nécessité de constituer un patrimoine pour demain. On dépasse donc largement la simple propriété personnelle (droit d'user « et d'abuser » selon le droit romain). Il relève du bien public et du bien commun. « La culture ne s'hérite pas, elle se conquiert. » — André Malraux (1935) (fr) +, Cultural heritage is the heritage of tangible and intangible heritage assets of a group or society that is inherited from past generations. Not all heritages of past generations are "heritage"; rather, heritage is a product of selection by society. Cultural heritage includes tangible culture (such as buildings, monuments, landscapes, books, works of art, and artifacts), intangible culture (such as folklore, traditions, language, and knowledge), and natural heritage (including culturally significant landscapes, and biodiversity). The term is often used in connection with issues relating to the protection of Indigenous intellectual property. The deliberate act of keeping cultural heritage from the present for the future is known as preservation (American English) or conservation (British English), which cultural and historical ethnic museums and cultural centers promote, though these terms may have more specific or technical meanings in the same contexts in the other dialect. Preserved heritage has become an anchor of the global tourism industry, a major contributor of economic value to local communities. Legal protection of cultural property comprises a number of international agreements and national laws.United Nations, UNESCO and Blue Shield International deal with the protection of cultural heritage. This also applies to the integration of United Nations peacekeeping. (en) +, El patrimonio cultural es la herencia cultural propia del pasado de una comunidad, mantenida hasta la actualidad y transmitida a las generaciones presentes. Las entidades que identifican y clasifican determinados bienes como relevantes para la cultura de un pueblo, de una región o de toda la humanidad, velan también por la salvaguarda y la protección de esos bienes, de forma tal que sean preservados debidamente para las generaciones futuras y que puedan ser objeto de estudio y fuente de experiencias emocionales para todos aquellos que los usen, disfruten o visiten. La Convención sobre la Protección del Patrimonio Mundial Cultural y Natural fue adoptada por la Conferencia General de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura (Unesco) el 16 de noviembre de 1972, cuyo objetivo era promover la identificación, protección y preservación del patrimonio cultural y natural considerado especialmente valioso para la humanidad. Como complemento de ese tratado, la Unesco aprobó, el 7 de octubre de 2003, la Convención para la Salvaguarda del Patrimonio Cultural Inmaterial, que definió que: Se entiende por patrimonio cultural inmaterial los usos, representaciones, expresiones, conocimientos y técnicas —junto con los instrumentos, objetos, artefactos y espacios culturales que les son inherentes— que las comunidades, los grupos y, en algunos casos, los individuos reconozcan como parte integrante de su patrimonio cultural.Este patrimonio cultural inmaterial, que se transmite de generación en generación, es recreado constantemente por las comunidades y grupos en función de su entorno, su interacción con la naturaleza y su historia, infundiéndoles un sentimiento de identidad y continuidad y contribuyendo así a promover el respeto de la diversidad cultural y la creatividad humana. Algunos patrimonialistas y museólogos que estudian los vínculos culturales con la naturaleza o el patrimonio natural han alertado sobre las consecuencias concretas de las alteraciones ambientales tanto en la música folklórica como en la producción de artesanías tradicionales y en la supervivencia de las deidades, mitos y leyendas populares. Sostienen que la destrucción de la naturaleza desdibuja la identidad de los pueblos. En particular, los de aquellos que mejor han conservado sus tradiciones o cosmovisiones, como suele ser el caso de los indígenas u aborígenes. (es)
Pasture (from the Latin pastus, past participle of pascere, "to feed") is land used for grazing. Pasture lands in the narrow sense are enclosed tracts of farmland, grazed by domesticated livestock, such as horses, cattle, sheep, or swine. The vegetation of tended pasture, forage, consists mainly of grasses, with an interspersion of legumes and other forbs (non-grass herbaceous plants). Pasture is typically grazed throughout the summer, in contrast to meadow which is ungrazed or used for grazing only after being mown to make hay for animal fodder. Pasture in a wider sense additionally includes rangelands, other unenclosed pastoral systems, and land types used by wild animals for grazing or browsing. Pasture lands in the narrow sense are distinguished from rangelands by being managed through more intensive agricultural practices of seeding, irrigation, and the use of fertilizers, while rangelands grow primarily native vegetation, managed with extensive practices like controlled burning and regulated intensity of grazing. Soil type, minimum annual temperature, and rainfall are important factors in pasture management. Sheepwalk is an area of grassland where sheep can roam freely. The productivity of sheepwalk is measured by the number of sheep per area. This is dependent, among other things, on the underlying rock. Sheepwalk is also the name of townlands in County Roscommon, Ireland, and County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland. Unlike factory farming, which entails in its most intensive form entirely trough-feeding, managed or unmanaged pasture is the main food source for ruminants. Pasture feeding dominates livestock farming where the land makes crop sowing or harvesting (or both) difficult, such as in arid or mountainous regions, where types of camel, goat, antelope, yak and other ruminants live which are well suited to the more hostile terrain and very rarely factory-farmed. In more humid regions, pasture grazing is managed across a large global area for free range and organic farming. Certain types of pasture suit the diet, evolution and metabolism of particular animals, and their fertilising and tending of the land may over generations result in the pasture combined with the ruminants in question being integral to a particular ecosystem. (en)
La pauvreté désigne dans une société donnée le fait d'être dans une situation d'infériorité matérielle par rapport aux individus les plus favorisés; cela se traduit notamment par des difficultés à subvenir à ses besoins et à ceux de ses proches, mais aussi par une stigmatisation de la part des personnes plus riches. Il n'existe cependant pas de définition complètement consensuelle et universelle de la pauvreté. La satisfaction des besoins de base est jugée comme indispensable à la vie décente d'un être humain; avec le progrès technique et l'amélioration des conditions de vie dans les pays développés, une définition basée sur des seuils de pauvreté relatifs au revenu médian a vu le jour sans lien avec la satisfaction de ces besoins. Autrement dit, le nombre de pauvres est celui qui correspond à la totalité des personnes titulaires d'un revenu par habitant inférieur à un certain pourcentage du revenu médian. Ce seuil est généralement de 20 %. Le terme « pauvreté », relatif à celui de richesse, fait ainsi davantage référence aux situations d'inégalités économiques et politiques entre individus et entre sociétés. Les sciences économiques tentent d'expliquer l'existence de la pauvreté, ainsi que les mécanismes de l'accroissement de la richesse. Les gouvernements ont un souci universel du phénomène de la pauvreté, et s’efforcent de la contrôler, si ce n’est par égard pour la vie des individus et des groupes de personnes parce que des conflits entre les pauvres et les riches ont jalonné l'histoire du monde, et peuvent donc menacer les pouvoirs existants. La pauvreté est une cause majeure de souffrance, et l'égalité entre les êtres humains est au centre de diverses conceptions morales, philosophiques et religieuses. Il existe différents types de pauvreté. (fr) +, Poverty is the state of having few material possessions or little income. Poverty can have diverse social, economic, and political causes and effects. When evaluating poverty in statistics or economics there are two main measures: absolute poverty compares income against the amount needed to meet basic personal needs, such as food, clothing, and shelter; relative poverty measures when a person cannot meet a minimum level of living standards, compared to others in the same time and place. The definition of relative poverty varies from one country to another, or from one society to another. Statistically, as of 2019, most of the world's population live in poverty: in PPP dollars, 85% of people live on less than $30 per day, two-thirds live on less than $10 per day, and 10% live on less than $1.90 per day (extreme poverty). According to the World Bank Group in 2020, more than 40% of the poor live in conflict-affected countries. Even when countries experience economic development, the poorest citizens of middle-income countries frequently do not gain an adequate share of their countries' increased wealth to leave poverty. Governments and non-governmental organizations have experimented with a number of different policies and programs for poverty alleviation, such as electrification in rural areas or housing first policies in urban areas. The international policy frameworks for poverty alleviation, established by the United Nations in 2015, are summarized in Sustainable Development Goal 1: "No Poverty". Social forces, such as gender, disability, race and ethnicity, can exacerbate issues of poverty—with women, children and minorities frequently bearing unequal burdens of poverty. Moreover, impoverished individuals are more vulnerable to the effects of other social issues, such as the environmental effects of industry or the impacts of climate change or other natural disasters or extreme weather events. Poverty can also make other social problems worse; economic pressures on impoverished communities frequently play a part in deforestation, biodiversity loss and ethnic conflict. For this reason, the UN's Sustainable Development Goals and other international policy programs, such as the international recovery from COVID-19, emphasize the connection of poverty alleviation with other societal goals. (en) , La pobreza es una situación en la cual no es posible satisfacer las necesidades físicas y psicológicas básicas de una persona, por falta de recursos como la alimentación, la vivienda, la educación, la asistencia sanitaria, el agua potable o la electricidad. La pobreza puede afectar a una persona, a un grupo de personas o a toda una región geográfica. También se suele considerar como pobreza a las situaciones en que la falta de medios económicos impide acceder a tales recursos. Situaciones como el desempleo, la falta de ingresos o un nivel bajo de los mismos. Asimismo la pobreza puede ser el resultado de procesos de exclusión social, segregación social o marginación (de manera inversa, el que una persona se vuelva pobre también puede conducirla a la marginación). En muchos países del tercer mundo, la pobreza se presenta cuando no es posible cubrir las necesidades incluidas en la canasta básica de alimentos o se dan problemas de subdesarrollo. En los estudios y estadísticas sociales se distingue entre pobreza y pobreza extrema (también llamada miseria o indigencia), definiéndose la pobreza extrema como aquella situación en la que una persona no puede acceder a la canasta básica de alimentos (CBA) que le permita consumir una cantidad básica de calorías por día, y pobreza como aquella situación en la que una persona no puede acceder a una canasta básica de bienes y servicios más amplia (CBT), que incluye, además de los alimentos, rubros como los servicios públicos, la salud, la educación, la vivienda o la vestimenta. El Banco Mundial ha cuantificado ambas líneas, estableciendo desde octubre de 2015, la línea de pobreza extrema (indigencia) en 1,90 dólares norteamericanos ($) por día y la línea de pobreza en 3,10 $ diarios. Según el informe de Desarrollo Humano de 2014 del Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD), uno de cada cinco habitantes del mundo vive en situación de pobreza o pobreza extrema. Es decir, 1 500 millones de personas no tienen acceso a saneamiento, agua potable, electricidad, educación básica o al sistema de salud, además de soportar carencias económicas incompatibles con una vida digna. En la mayoría de contextos sociales la pobreza se considera algo negativo y penoso, si bien en algunos ámbitos de carácter espiritual o religioso la pobreza voluntaria se considera una virtud por implicar la renuncia a los bienes materiales —voto monástico de pobreza. Históricamente la pobreza ha sido valorada de muy distinta forma según la ideología o ideologías de cada época; así ocurría en el pensamiento económico medieval. Distinta de la pobreza voluntaria es la vida austera o vida sencilla, cercana a posiciones tanto espirituales como ecologistas —decrecimiento. (es)
Un paysage est une étendue spatiale couverte par un point de vue. C'est un ensemble interdépendant au fonctionnement, à la mécanique, autonome formé d'une continuité d'éléments sédimentés et dont l'on ne perçoit qu'une globalité. Son caractère « résulte de l'action et de l'interaction de facteurs naturels et/ou humains » ajoute le Conseil de l'Europe. La notion de paysage a une dimension esthétique forte, voire picturale ou littéraire en tant que représentation, mais elle recouvre de nombreuses acceptions et le paysage manifeste aussi les politiques d'aménagement du territoire, voire la géopolitique. Un paysage est d'abord appréhendé visuellement, mais les parfums et ambiances sonores en modifient aussi la perception (on parle parfois de paysage sonore). Par extension, comme le terme panorama, dans des expressions comme « paysage politique » ou « paysage médiatique », il peut désigner un ensemble contextuel, la vision des choses à un temps donné, le paysage étant en constante évolution. (fr) +, A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or man-made features, often considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal. A landscape includes the physical elements of geophysically defined landforms such as (ice-capped) mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of land use, buildings, and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect a living synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity. The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates one region from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to people's lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park or wilderness. The Earth has a vast range of landscapes, including the icy landscapes of polar regions, mountainous landscapes, vast arid desert landscapes, islands, and coastal landscapes, densely forested or wooded landscapes including past boreal forests and tropical rainforests, and agricultural landscapes of temperate and tropical regions. The activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping. (en) +
Un paysage est une étendue spatiale couverte par un point de vue. C'est un ensemble interdépendant au fonctionnement, à la mécanique, autonome formé d'une continuité d'éléments sédimentés et dont l'on ne perçoit qu'une globalité. Son caractère « résulte de l'action et de l'interaction de facteurs naturels et/ou humains » ajoute le Conseil de l'Europe. La notion de paysage a une dimension esthétique forte, voire picturale ou littéraire en tant que représentation, mais elle recouvre de nombreuses acceptions et le paysage manifeste aussi les politiques d'aménagement du territoire, voire la géopolitique. Un paysage est d'abord appréhendé visuellement, mais les parfums et ambiances sonores en modifient aussi la perception (on parle parfois de paysage sonore). Par extension, comme le terme panorama, dans des expressions comme « paysage politique » ou « paysage médiatique », il peut désigner un ensemble contextuel, la vision des choses à un temps donné, le paysage étant en constante évolution. (fr) +, A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or man-made features, often considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal. A landscape includes the physical elements of geophysically defined landforms such as (ice-capped) mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of land use, buildings, and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect a living synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity. The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates one region from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to people's lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park or wilderness. The Earth has a vast range of landscapes, including the icy landscapes of polar regions, mountainous landscapes, vast arid desert landscapes, islands, and coastal landscapes, densely forested or wooded landscapes including past boreal forests and tropical rainforests, and agricultural landscapes of temperate and tropical regions. The activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping. (en) +, El concepto de paisaje (extensión de terreno que se ve desde un lugar o sitio) se utiliza de manera diferente por varios campos de estudio, aunque todos los usos del término llevan implícita la existencia de un sujeto observador (el que visualiza) y de un objeto observado (el terreno), del que se destacan fundamentalmente sus cualidades visuales, espaciales. El paisaje, desde el punto de vista geográfico, es el objeto de estudio primordial y el documento geográfico básico a partir del cual se hace la geografía. En general, se entiende por paisaje cualquier área de la superficie terrestre producto de la interacción de los diferentes factores presentes en ella y que tienen un reflejo visual en el espacio. El paisaje geográfico es por tanto el aspecto que adquiere el espacio geográfico.El paisaje, desde el punto de vista artístico, sobre todo pictórico, es la representación gráfica de un terreno extenso. Con el mismo significado se utiliza el término país (no debe confundirse con el concepto político de país). El paisaje también puede ser el objeto material a crear o modificar por el arte mismo. En literatura, la descripción del paisaje es una que se denomina topografía (término que también da nombre a la topografía como ciencia y técnica que se emplea para la representación gráfica de la superficie terrestre). En construcciones literarias y ensayísticas es habitual comparar el paisaje con el paisanaje (de ), es decir, el medio con los grupos humanos. Véanse también: Ecología del paisaje, Paisaje sustentable, Área protegida y Paisaje sonoro. (es) +
La permaculture est un concept systémique qui vise à créer des écosystèmes respectant la biodiversité. Il est inspiré par la nature et son fonctionnement (biomimétisme ou écomimétisme). C'est une méthode consistant à définir et mettre en pratique des cultures, des lieux de vie et des systèmes agricoles humains utilisant des principes d'écologie et le savoir des sociétés traditionnelles pour reproduire la diversité, la stabilité et la résilience des écosystèmes naturels. À l'origine c’est une forme d'agriculture naturelle issue des travaux de l'agriculteur, biologiste et philosophe japonais Masanobu Fukuoka (1913-2008). Ce concept a été théorisé dans les années 1970 par les Australiens Bill Mollison (biologiste) et David Holmgren (essayiste). Le terme « permaculture » signifiait initialement « culture permanente » (de l'anglais « permanent agriculture ») ; puis avec le temps il a été étendu pour signifier « culture de ce qui est permanent dans le sens (sociologique) de pérenne ou viable ». En effet, les aspects sociaux font partie intégrante d'un système véritablement durable. Cette dernière signification est toutefois sujette à polémique. Avec ce sens étendu, la permaculture forme des individus à une éthique ainsi qu'à un ensemble de principes. L'objectif étant de permettre à ces individus de concevoir leur propre environnement et ainsi de créer des habitats humains plus autonomes, durables et résilients, en s'inspirant des fonctionnements naturels locaux. L'idée est d'atteindre une société moins dépendante des systèmes industriels de production et de distribution (identifiés par Bill Mollison comme le fondement de la destruction systématique des écosystèmes). La permaculture utilise entre autres des notions d'écologie, de paysage, d'agriculture biologique, d'agroécologie, de biomimétisme, d'éthique, de philosophie et de pédologie. La permaculture invite à mettre ces aspects théoriques en relation avec les observations réalisées sur le terrain de façon harmonieuse. (fr) , Permacultura es un sistema de principios de diseño agrícola y económico, político y social basado en los patrones y las características del ecosistema natural. Tiene muchas ramas, entre las que se incluyen el diseño ecológico, la ingeniería ecológica, diseño ambiental, la construcción y la gestión integrada de los recursos hídricos, que desarrolla la arquitectura sostenible y los sistemas agrícolas de automantenimiento modelados desde los ecosistemas naturales. El término «permacultura» (como un método sistemático) fue acuñado por primera vez por los australianos Bill Mollison y David Holmgren en 1978. La palabra permacultura (en inglés permaculture) es una contracción, que originalmente se refería a la ‘agricultura permanente’, pero se amplió para significar también cultura permanente, debido a que se ha visto que los aspectos sociales son parte integral de un sistema verdaderamente sostenible, inspirado en la filosofía de la Agricultura Natural de Masanobu Fukuoka. Desde sus inicios a finales de los años 1970, la permacultura se ha definido como una respuesta positiva a la crisis ambiental y social que estamos viviendo. En palabras de Bill Mollison: La permacultura es la filosofía de trabajar con, y no en contra de la naturaleza; de observación prolongada y reflexiva, en lugar de labores prolongadas e inconscientes; de entender a las plantas y los animales en todas sus funciones, en lugar de tratar a las áreas como sistemas mono-productivos. (es) +, Permaculture is an approach to land management and settlement design that adopts arrangements observed in flourishing natural ecosystems. It includes a set of design principles derived using whole-systems thinking. It applies these principles in fields such as regenerative agriculture, town planning, rewilding, and community resilience. Permaculture originally came from "permanent agriculture", but was later adjusted to mean "permanent culture", incorporating social aspects. The term was coined in 1978 by Bill Mollison and David Holmgren, who formulated the concept in opposition to modern industrialized methods instead adopting a more traditional or "natural" approach to agriculture. Permaculture has many branches including ecological design, ecological engineering, regenerative design, environmental design, and construction. It also includes integrated water resources management, sustainable architecture, and regenerative and self-maintained habitat and agricultural systems modeled from natural ecosystems. Permaculture uses creative design processes based on whole-systems thinking, considering all materials and energies in flow that affect or are affected by proposed changes. In practical terms it means that before, for example, modifying overland water flow, one fully considers both upstream and downstream effects in the short and long terms. Or, when looking at a "problem", such as brushy vegetation, one considers how removing or altering it will affect soil and wildlife, and how these interacting forces would evolve over time and space. Permaculture has been criticised as being poorly defined and unscientific. Critics have pushed for less reliance on anecdote and extrapolation from ecological first principles, in favor of peer-reviewed research to substantiate productivity claims and to clarify methodology. Peter Harper from the Centre for Alternative Technology suggests that most of what passes for permaculture has no relevance to real problems. (en) +
