Attribut:Text
De Remix Biens Communs
« Text » est une propriété prédéfinie fournie par MediaWiki Sémantique et qui représente un texte de longueur quelconque. Cette propriété est pré-déployée (appelée aussi propriété spéciale) et est accompagnée de droits d’administration supplémentaires, mais peut être utilisée exactement comme toute autre propriété définie par l’utilisateur.
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A community land trust (CLT) is a nonprofit corporation that holds land on behalf of a place-based community, while serving as the long-term steward for affordable housing, community gardens, civic buildings, commercial spaces and other community assets on behalf of a community. CLTs balance the needs of individuals who want security of tenure in occupying and using land and housing, with the needs of the surrounding community, striving to secure a variety of social purposes such as maintaining the affordability of local housing, preventing the displacement of vulnerable residents, and promoting economic and racial inclusion. Across the world, there is enormous diversity among CLTs in the ways that real property is owned, used, and operated and the ways that the CLT itself is guided and governed by people living on and around a CLT’s land. +
Un Community Land Trust, appelé en droit français organisme foncier solidaire, est une personne morale à but non lucratif ayant pour objet de détenir la propriété de terrains sur lesquels des logements sont bâtis, et ce afin que ces derniers restent perpétuellement à coût abordable, et nettement inférieurs au prix du marché. +
Finance is the study and discipline of money, currency and capital assets. It is related to, but not synonymous with economics, the study of production, distribution, and consumption of money, assets, goods and services (the discipline of financial economics bridges the two).Finance activities take place in financial systems at various scopes, thus the field can be roughly divided into personal, corporate, and public finance. In a financial system, assets are bought, sold, or traded as financial instruments, such as currencies, loans, bonds, shares, stocks, options, futures, etc. Assets can also be banked, invested, and insured to maximize value and minimize loss. In practice, risks are always present in any financial action and entities. A broad range of subfields within finance exist due to its wide scope. Asset, money, risk and investment management aim to maximize value and minimize volatility. Financial analysis is viability, stability, and profitability assessment of an action or entity. In some cases, theories in finance can be tested using the scientific method, covered by experimental finance. Some fields are multidisciplinary, such as mathematical finance, financial law, financial economics, financial engineering and financial technology. These fields are the foundation of business and accounting. The early history of finance parallels the early history of money, which is prehistoric. Ancient and medieval civilizations incorporated basic functions of finance, such as banking, trading and accounting, into their economies. In the late 19th century, the global financial system was formed. It was in the middle of the 20th century that finance emerged as a distinct academic discipline, separate from economics. (The first academic journal, The Journal of Finance, began publication in 1946.) The earliest doctoral programs in finance were established in the 1960s and 1970s.Finance is widely studied at the undergraduate and masters level. +
La finance recouvre un domaine d'activité — celui du financement — qui consiste à fournir l'argent nécessaire à la réalisation d'une opération économique. Ce domaine concerne aussi bien les individus, les ménages que les entreprises publiques ou privées, mais aussi les États. La recherche de financement obéit à deux types d'objectifs suivant le volume initial de capital :
* à niveau de capital restreint, on cherche à obtenir des capitaux nécessaires et suffisants pour entreprendre, maintenir ou développer une activité ;
* à niveau de capital avéré, l'objectif est de trouver les placements les plus pertinents en performance et en sécurité en fonction de la valeur temps de l'argent. Le mot « finance » peut également désigner :
* soit les techniques qui permettent de façon raisonnée d'obtenir et de placer des capitaux ;
* soit les agents économiques ou les institutions qui recherchent des capitaux disponibles ou souhaitent en placer (soit une définition liminaire qui serait : acheter ou vendre de l'argent). Pour se financer, un agent économique (une organisation privée ou publique, ou un particulier) peut procéder :
* par autofinancement, c'est-à-dire en utilisant ses bénéfices antérieurs ou ses réserves financières disponibles ;
* par financement direct en faisant appel au marché financier (émission d'actions ou d'obligations) ;
* par financement indirect ou intermédié en ayant recours au crédit bancaire. +
URL of the homepage of something, which is a general web resource. +
A person known by this person (indicating some level of reciprocated interaction between the parties). +
A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines a forest as, "Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban use." Using this definition, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 (FRA 2020) found that forests covered 4.06 billion hectares (10.0 billion acres; 40.6 million square kilometres; 15.7 million square miles), or approximately 31 percent of the world's land area in 2020. Forests are the predominant terrestrial ecosystem of Earth, and are found around the globe. More than half of the world's forests are found in only five countries (Brazil, Canada, China, Russia, and the United States). The largest share of forests (45 percent) are in the tropical latitudes, followed by those in the boreal, temperate, and subtropic domains. Forests account for 75% of the gross primary production of the Earth's biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earth's plant biomass. Net primary production is estimated at 21.9 gigatonnes of biomass per year for tropical forests, 8.1 for temperate forests, and 2.6 for boreal forests. Forests at different latitudes and elevations, and with different precipitation and evapotranspiration form distinctly different biomes: boreal forests around the North Pole, tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests around the Equator, and temperate forests at the middle latitudes. Areas at higher elevations tend to support forests similar to those at higher latitudes, and the amount of precipitation also affects forest composition. Almost half the forest area (49 percent) is relatively intact, while 9 percent is found in fragments with little or no connectivity. Tropical rainforests and boreal coniferous forests are the least fragmented, whereas subtropical dry forests and temperate oceanic forests are among the most fragmented. Roughly 80 percent of the world's forest area is found in patches larger than 1 million hectares (2.5 million acres). The remaining 20 percent is located in more than 34 million patches around the world – the vast majority less than 1,000 hectares (2,500 acres) in size. Human society and forests influence each other in both positive and negative ways. Forests provide ecosystem services to humans and serve as tourist attractions. Forests can also affect people's health. Human activities, including unsustainable use of forest resources, can negatively affect forest ecosystems.
Cooperating Associations, also known as interpretive associations or natural history associations, support the interpretive, educational and scientific programs and services of governmental land management agencies such as the National Park Service, USDA Forest Service, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Land Management, US Army Corps of Engineers, or state park departments. Associations assist in the production of site-specific products, distribute educational and scientific publications produced by agencies, donate materials for use in interpretive programs and exhibits, and work to secure grants and funding. This is accomplished through bookstore sales, membership support, publication and product development, research funding, and other educational programs and activities. They must hold a federally tax-exempt, not-for-profit status under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. +
Fructus (Latin for "fruits") is a legal term used in Roman law to describe goods naturally created by other property. In the most traditional understanding, this encompasses literal fruit of various plants, but also goods taken from animals such as milk or wool. There is some debate whether profits arising from other legal actions, such as loan interest, can be considered fructus – ancient jurisprudents usually strayed from such interpretations, but did argue to treat such profits in analogical ways. +
Le fructus (du latin signifiant « fruit ») est le droit de disposer des fruits d'une chose, parce qu'on en est le propriétaire ou l'usufruitier. Il se distingue :
* de l'usus qui est le droit d'user d'une chose,
* de l'abusus qui est le droit de disposer d'une chose, et notamment de l'aliéner. Ces trois droits composent le droit de propriété. L'association de l'usus et du fructus compose le droit d'utiliser une chose et de jouir de ses fruits (« usufruit »). Le fructus est un droit réel en ce sens qu'il s'exerce sur une chose, par opposition aux droits personnels qui s'exercent à l'encontre d'une personne (créance). +
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En botanique, la garrigue (du provençal garriga) est une formation végétale caractéristique des régions méditerranéennes, proche du maquis. Selon l'École agronomique de Montpellier, la garrigue est au calcaire ce que le maquis est aux terrains siliceux. L'École agronomique de Toulouse associe le terme de garrigue à l'étagement de végétation. Garrigue et maquis peuvent être réunis sous un même vocable : le matorral qui constitue une sère d'une succession régressive due au passage récurrent du feu, correspondant généralement à un écosystème forestier dégradé, parfois à un réembroussaillement d'anciennes pâtures ou de terres cultivées laissées à l'abandon. +
Garrigue or garigue (/ɡəˈriːɡ/ gə-REEG), also known as phrygana (Greek: φρύγανα [ˈfriɣana], n. pl.), is a type of low scrubland ecoregion and plant community in the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome. It is found on limestone soils in southern France and around the Mediterranean Basin, generally near the seacoast where the moderated Mediterranean climate provides annual summer drought. It is an anthropogenic degradation and succession form of former evergreen oak forests that existed until 4500 years BC. The term has also found its way into haute cuisine, suggestive of the resinous flavours of a garrigue shrubland. +
La garriga es un tipo de ecorregión compuesta por formaciones vegetales que surgen en los biomas de los bosques mediterráneos. Estas formaciones son el resultado de la degradación del chaparral y otras comunidades vegetales como bosques de quercineas provocadas por la acción del hombre: el sobrepastoreo y el fuego.Es un hábitat degradado que en ocasiones sustituye a los encinares y otros robledales quemados o talados. El nombre deriva de la palabra francesa tomada del occitano garric, que en la lengua de Oc designa a una de las especies vegetales más comunes: Quercus coccifera, llamado Chêne des garrigues (roble de garriga) en francés. La garriga cubre los sustratos calizos y puede también colonizar afloramientos rocosos. El término chaparral proviene de chaparro: mata de roble enano de muchas ramas y poca altura, que a su vez viene del vasco txaparro, con el mismo significado. En España existe una comarca en la provincia catalana de Lérida denominada Las Garrigas, cuyo nombre hace referencia a esta formación. +
Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to femininity and masculinity and differentiating between them. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles) and gender identity. Most cultures use a gender binary, in which gender is divided into two categories, and people are considered part of one or the other (boys/men and girls/women); those who are outside these groups may fall under the umbrella term non-binary. Some societies have specific genders besides "man" and "woman", such as the hijras of South Asia; these are often referred to as third genders (and fourth genders, etc.). Most scholars agree that gender is a central characteristic for social organization. Sexologist John Money is often regarded as the first to introduce a terminological distinction between biological sex and gender role (which, as originally defined, includes the concepts of both gender role and what would later become known as gender identity) in 1955 although Madison Bentley had already in 1945 defined gender as the "socialized obverse of sex", and Simone de Beauvoir's 1949 book The Second Sex has been interpreted as the beginning of the distinction between sex and gender in feminist theory. Before Money's work, it was uncommon to use the word gender to refer to anything but grammatical categories. However, Money's meaning of the word did not become widespread until the 1970s, when feminist theory embraced the concept of a distinction between biological sex and the social construct of gender. Most contemporary social scientists, behavioral scientists and biologists, many legal systems and government bodies, and intergovernmental agencies such as the WHO, make a distinction between gender and sex. In other contexts, the term gender is used to replace sex without representing a clear conceptual difference. For instance, in non-human animal research, gender is commonly used to refer to the biological sex of the animals. This change in the meaning of gender can be traced to the 1980s. In 1993, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) started to use gender instead of sex to avoid confusion with sexual intercourse. Later, in 2011, the FDA reversed its position and began using sex as the biological classification and gender as "a person's self-representation as male or female, or how that person is responded to by social institutions based on the individual's gender presentation." The social sciences have a branch devoted to gender studies. Other sciences, such as sexology and neuroscience, are also interested in the subject. The social sciences sometimes approach gender as a social construct, and gender studies particularly do, while research in the natural sciences investigates whether biological differences in females and males influence the development of gender in humans; both inform the debate about how far biological differences influence the formation of gender identity and gendered behavior. In some English literature, there is also a trichotomy between biological sex, psychological gender, and social gender role. This framework first appeared in a feminist paper on transsexualism in 1978.
Gentrification is the process of changing the character of a neighborhood through the influx of more affluent residents and businesses. It is a common and controversial topic in urban politics and planning. Gentrification often increases the economic value of a neighborhood, but the resulting demographic displacement may itself become a major social issue. Gentrification often sees a shift in a neighborhood's racial or ethnic composition and average household income as housing and businesses become more expensive and resources that had not been previously accessible are extended and improved. The gentrification process is typically the result of increasing attraction to an area by people with higher incomes spilling over from neighboring cities, towns, or neighborhoods. Further steps are increased investments in a community and the related infrastructure by real estate development businesses, local government, or community activists and resulting economic development, increased attraction of business, and lower crime rates. In addition to these potential benefits, gentrification can lead to population migration and displacement. In extreme cases, gentrification can be brought on by a prosperity bomb. However, some view the fear of displacement, which dominates the debate about gentrification, as hindering discussion about genuine progressive approaches to distribute the benefits of urban redevelopment strategies. +
La gentrification, mot issu de l'anglais gentrification — en français québécois embourgeoisement ou, dans la presse, boboïsation (du terme bobo) — désigne « les transformations de quartiers populaires dues à l’arrivée de catégories sociales plus favorisées qui réhabilitent certains logements et importent des modes de vie et de consommation différents ». Cette expression est employée pour la première fois par la sociologue Ruth Glass dans son ouvrage London: Aspects of Change, étudiant dans les années 1960 les processus par lesquels les populations les moins favorisées de Londres étaient chassées de certains quartiers tandis que s'y créaient de véritables ghettos de la classe aisée. Le concept a par la suite été repris, développé et approfondi partout au Royaume-Uni ainsi qu'aux États-Unis. Ce n'est qu'au début des années 2000 que le terme « gentrification » apparaît dans les milieux académiques français. Le processus de gentrification résulte de l’accroissement de l’intérêt porté à un certain espace. Les premiers « gentrifieurs » peuvent appartenir à des communautés d’artistes aux faibles revenus, ce qui contribue à l’attractivité du quartier. Ensuite, diverses étapes de hausse des investissements dans le secteur immobilier par les acteurs privés et publics conduisent au développement économique du quartier, à une augmentation de l’attractivité des commerces et une baisse du taux de criminalité. Par ailleurs, la gentrification peut entraîner des migrations de population. +
La gestion de l'eau est l'activité qui consiste à protéger, planifier, développer, distribuer et gérer l'utilisation optimale des ressources en eau et des milieux aquatiques, des points de vue qualitatif et quantitatif. Ceci inclut la gestion des risques « quantitatifs » et évènements extrêmes de sécheresse et pénurie, d'inondations et de crues, érosion des sols et du trait de côte, d', notamment liés au changement climatique, à la déforestation et à la destruction des zones humides. S'y ajoute les questions de pollutions telluriques des zones côtières et des mers et océans, par les activités humaines, essentiellement charriées par les fleuves. Axée sur le développement des ressources en eau depuis les années 1970, cette activité se tourne sur leur gestion dans les années 1980 et sur la gestion intégrée des ressources en eau dans les années 1990, cette évolution traduisant la mobilisation du secteur public et privé en faveur du développement durable. En 2017, au moins 196 villes mondiales, soit 1,2 milliard de personnes (20 % de la population) sont considérées comme confrontées à des problèmes de gestion de l’eau selon le CDP (ex. : Miami, Pittsburgh (États-Unis) et Johannesburg (Afrique du Sud), qui dont confrontées à un risque « extrême » d’inondations. Les actions de gestion sont de court, moyen et long termes et pour certaines doivent concerner tout un bassin versant. Elles concernent donc de nombreux acteurs (dont collectivités publiques, entreprises agriculteurs et habitants), entités décisionnelles réunies sous le nom de gouvernance de l'eau. Dans un contexte de marchandisation l'eau est de plus en plus perçue comme une ressource naturelle précieuse et un bien commun à partager avec les autres êtres vivants de la planète ; une ressource limitée et inégalement répartie, à utiliser de manière économe et à dépolluer avant de la rendre au milieu naturel. +
La gestión del agua o la gestión de recursos hídricos es la actividad de planificar, desarrollar, distribuir y dirigir el uso óptimo de los recursos hídricos. Es un subconjunto de la . A veces se la denomina "gestión sostenible de recursos hídricos", pero es una redundancia, porque toda gestión óptima es necesariamente sostenible. El agua es esencial para la supervivencia de los seres vivos. La gestión del agua deberá continuar adaptándose a los cambios actuales y futuros en la existencia y asignación de estos recursos. Con la creciente incertidumbre por el calentamiento mundial y con los impactos a largo plazo de las acciones de gestión, la toma de decisiones será aún más difícil. Es probable que el calentamiento mundial lleve a situaciones aún no experimentadas. En consecuencia se buscan estrategias alternativas de gestión para evitar contratiempos en la asignación de recursos hídricos. Idealmente, la planificación de los recursos hídricos debe considerar todas las demandas de agua (sanitaria, agricultura, industria, medio ambiente), que compiten entre sí por un recurso escaso. La planificación busca repartir equitativamente el agua para satisfacer todas las demandas. Al igual que en otros casos de gestión de recursos, esto rara vez resulta posible en la práctica. Uno de las mayores preocupaciones sobre los recursos hídricos es la sostenibilidad de su asignación actual y futura. Cuando el agua deviene más escasa, crece enormemente la importancia de cómo se gestiona. Encontrar un equilibrio entre lo que necesitan las personas y lo que necesita el medio ambiente es un paso importante en la sostenibilidad de los recursos hídricos. +
Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful for humans, for example as a source of drinking water supply or irrigation water. 97% of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air. Natural sources of fresh water include surface water, under river flow, groundwater and frozen water. Artificial sources of fresh water can include treated wastewater (wastewater reuse) and desalinated seawater. Human uses of water resources include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Water resources are under threat from water scarcity, water pollution, water conflict and climate change. Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of groundwater is steadily decreasing, with depletion occurring most prominently in Asia, South America and North America, although it is still unclear how much natural renewal balances this usage, and whether ecosystems are threatened. The framework for allocating water resources to water users (where such a framework exists) is known as water rights. +
