Attribut:Résumé DBP
De Remix Biens Communs
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Emancipation generally means to free a person from a previous restraint or legal disability. More broadly, it is also used for efforts to procure economic and social rights, political rights or equality, often for a specifically disenfranchised group, or more generally, in discussion of many matters. Among others, Karl Marx discussed political emancipation in his 1844 essay "On the Jewish Question", although often in addition to (or in contrast with) the term human emancipation. Marx's views of political emancipation in this work were summarized by one writer as entailing "equal status of individual citizens in relation to the state, equality before the law, regardless of religion, property, or other 'private' characteristics of individual people." "Political emancipation" as a phrase is less common in modern usage, especially outside academic, foreign or activist contexts. However, similar concepts may be referred to by other terms. For instance, in the United States the Civil Rights Movement culminated in the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which can collectively be seen as further realization of events such as the Emancipation Proclamation and abolition of slavery a century earlier. In the current and former British West Indies islands the holiday Emancipation Day is celebrated to mark the end of the Atlantic slave trade. (en) +
Enclosure ou inclosure est un terme anglais qui désigne l'action d'enclore un champ. Cet anglicisme est passé en français où il désigne la parcelle de terrain enclose de haies, de murs ou de barrières, bien que les Picards utilisaient plutôt le mot « renclôture ». Ce terme fait souvent référence au mouvement des enclosures qui s'est développé en Angleterre à partir du XVIe siècle, et qui s'est intensifié aux débuts de la révolution industrielle au XIXe siècle. (fr) +, Enclosure or Inclosure is a term, used in English landownership, that refers to the appropriation of "waste" or "common land" enclosing it and by doing so depriving commoners of their rights of access and privilege. Agreements to enclose land could be either through a formal or informal process. The process could normally be accomplished in three ways. First there was the creation of "closes", taken out of larger common fields by their owners. Secondly, there was enclosure by proprietors, owners who acted together, usually small farmers or squires, leading to the enclosure of whole parishes. Finally there were enclosures by Acts of Parliament. The primary reason for enclosure was to improve the efficiency of agriculture. However, there were other motives too, one example being that the value of the land enclosed would be substantially increased. There were social consequences to the policy, with many protests at the removal of rights from the common people. Enclosure riots are seen by historians as 'the pre-eminent form' of social protest from the 1530s to 1640s. (en) +
L'énergie est un concept relié à ceux d'action, de force et de durée : la mise en œuvre d'une action nécessite de maintenir une certaine force pendant une durée suffisante, pour vaincre les inerties et résistances qui s'opposent à ce changement. L'énergie qui aura été nécessaire pour accomplir finalement l'action envisagée rend compte à la fois de la force et de la durée pendant laquelle elle aura été exercée. Le sens premier est celui d'une vertu morale : l'énergie morale et physique que l'homme doit mettre en œuvre pour accomplir un travail donné, mais l'énergie est aussi étudiée en physique, et en économie, pour évoquer notamment la production, la distribution et la consommation d'énergie, les enjeux environnementaux associés, ainsi que la question des ressources énergétiques, renouvelables ou non. (fr) +, In physics, energy (from Ancient Greek: ἐνέργεια, enérgeia, “activity”) is the quantitative property that is to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of heat and light. Energy is a conserved quantity—the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The unit of measurement for energy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule (J). Common forms of energy include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the potential energy stored by an object (for instance due to its position in a field), the elastic energy stored in a solid object, chemical energy associated with chemical reactions, the radiant energy carried by electromagnetic radiation, and the internal energy contained within a thermodynamic system. All living organisms constantly take in and release energy. Due to mass–energy equivalence, any object that has mass when stationary (called rest mass) also has an equivalent amount of energy whose form is called rest energy, and any additional energy (of any form) acquired by the object above that rest energy will increase the object's total mass just as it increases its total energy. Human civilization requires energy to function, which it gets from energy resources such as fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy. The Earth's climate and ecosystems processes are driven by the energy the planet receives from the Sun (although a small amount is also contributed by geothermal energy). (en) +
Social engagement (also social involvement, social participation) refers to one's degree of participation in a community or society. (en) +
Une entreprise également appelée firme, compagnie, société et familièrement boîte ou business est une organisation ou une unité institutionnelle, mue par un projet décliné en stratégie, en politiques et en plans d'action, dont le but est de produire et de fournir des biens ou des services à destination d'un ensemble de clients, en réalisant un équilibre de ses comptes de charges et de produits. Pour ce faire, une entreprise fait appel, mobilise et consomme des ressources (matérielles, humaines, financières, immatérielles et informationnelles) ce qui la conduit à devoir coordonner des fonctions (fonction d'achat, fonction commerciale, fonction informatique, etc.). Elle exerce son activité dans le cadre d'un contexte précis auquel elle doit s'adapter : un environnement plus ou moins concurrentiel, une filière technico-économique caractérisée par un état de l'art, un cadre socio-culturel et réglementaire spécifique. Elle peut se donner comme objectif de dégager un certain niveau de rentabilité, plus ou moins élevé. Une entreprise est considérée du point de vue légal comme une personne morale et doit en tant que telle établir une distinction entre les ressources matérielles et les ressources humaines. Du point de vue social, en effet, les entreprises génèrent des profits, qui les autorisent à verser des salaires, donc à faire vivre une ville ou une région. De ce même point de vue, les administrations ne créent aucune richesse et sont un coût pour la société humaine. Aucune entreprise ne peut s'exempter de l'équilibre entre le niveau de ses revenus et de ses charges. En cas d'écart déficitaire, celui-ci doit être réduit ou comblé par un apport extérieur (par exemple, une subvention d'équilibre) sous peine de non-viabilité et de disparition de l'entreprise à plus ou moins brève échéance. Depuis le début du XXIe siècle, les entreprises sont appelées à prendre en compte les exigences de (sustainable development en anglais), à travers ce que l'on appelle la responsabilité sociétale des entreprises (RSE), corporate social responsibility (CSR) en anglais. (fr) , Business is the practice of making one's living or making money by producing or buying and selling products (such as goods and services). It is also "any activity or enterprise entered into for profit." Having a business name does not separate the business entity from the owner, which means that the owner of the business is responsible and liable for debts incurred by the business. If the business acquires debts, the creditors can go after the owner's personal possessions. A business structure does not allow for corporate tax rates. The proprietor is personally taxed on all income from the business. The term is also often used colloquially (but not by lawyers or by public officials) to refer to a company, such as a corporation or cooperative. Corporations, in contrast with sole proprietors and partnerships, are a separate legal entity and provide limited liability for their owners/members, as well as being subject to corporate tax rates. A corporation is more complicated and expensive to set up, but offers more protection and benefits for the owners/members. (en) +
A state is a centralized political organization that imposes and enforces rules over a population within a territory. There is no undisputed definition of a state. One widely used definition comes from the German sociologist Max Weber: a "state" is a polity that maintains a monopoly on the legitimate use of violence, although other definitions are not uncommon. Absence of a state does not preclude the existence of a society, such as stateless societies like the Haudenosaunee Confederacy that "do not have either purely or even primarily political institutions or roles". The level of governance of a state, government being considered to form the fundamental apparatus of contemporary states, is used to determine whether it has failed. In a federal union, the term "state" is sometimes used to refer to the federated polities that make up the federation. (Other terms that are used in such federal systems may include “province”, “region” or other terms.) Most of the human population has existed within a state system for millennia; however, for most of prehistory people lived in stateless societies. The earliest forms of states arose about 5,500 years ago as governments gained state capacity in conjunction with rapid growth of cities, invention of writing and codification of new forms of religion. Over time, a variety of forms of states developed, which used many different justifications for their existence (such as divine right, the theory of the social contract, etc.). Today, the modern nation state is the predominant form of state to which people are subject. (en) +
A state is a centralized political organization that imposes and enforces rules over a population within a territory. There is no undisputed definition of a state. One widely used definition comes from the German sociologist Max Weber: a "state" is a polity that maintains a monopoly on the legitimate use of violence, although other definitions are not uncommon. Absence of a state does not preclude the existence of a society, such as stateless societies like the Haudenosaunee Confederacy that "do not have either purely or even primarily political institutions or roles". The level of governance of a state, government being considered to form the fundamental apparatus of contemporary states, is used to determine whether it has failed. In a federal union, the term "state" is sometimes used to refer to the federated polities that make up the federation. (Other terms that are used in such federal systems may include “province”, “region” or other terms.) Most of the human population has existed within a state system for millennia; however, for most of prehistory people lived in stateless societies. The earliest forms of states arose about 5,500 years ago as governments gained state capacity in conjunction with rapid growth of cities, invention of writing and codification of new forms of religion. Over time, a variety of forms of states developed, which used many different justifications for their existence (such as divine right, the theory of the social contract, etc.). Today, the modern nation state is the predominant form of state to which people are subject. (en) +
Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior". The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns matters of value; these fields comprise the branch of philosophy called axiology. Ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime. As a field of intellectual inquiry, moral philosophy is related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics, and value theory. Three major areas of study within ethics recognized today are: 1.
* Meta-ethics, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions, and how their truth values (if any) can be determined; 2.
* Normative ethics, concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of action; 3.
* Applied ethics, concerning what a person is obligated (or permitted) to do in a specific situation or a particular domain of action. (en) +
L'agriculture intensive est un système de production agricole fondé sur un accroissement de la production agricole optimisé par rapport à la disponibilité des facteurs de production (moyens humains, matériels et surfaces cultivées). Ce rapport entre volume produit et facteur de production est appelé productivité. L'agriculture intensive existe dans deux systèmes opposés, l'un traditionnel, l'autre moderne. En système traditionnel, les ressources humaines sont nombreuses, la force animale est souvent employée, la biodiversité est élevée et plusieurs espèces complémentaires sont parfois cultivées ensemble, mais les moyens matériels (et souvent les disponibilités foncières) sont rares : l'intensification agricole y est fondée sur l'investissement humain maximal par rapport aux autres facteurs de production. Les impacts environnementaux sont faibles (agriculture extensive au sens large). En système moderne, la situation est inverse : les moyens humains sont en grande partie remplacés par des machines ou robots, l'intensification requiert des investissements importants et une utilisation accrue d’intrants (engrais, produits phytosanitaires, matériel agricole, énergie). C'est ce deuxième système qui est habituellement désigné par l'appellation « agriculture intensive ». Les caractéristiques (mécanisation, chimisation, standardisation et augmentation de la taille des parcelles) de l'intensification de l'agriculture à l’échelle des parcelles et des paysages, expliquent que les impacts environnementaux y sont plus importants. (fr) +, Intensive agriculture, also known as intensive farming (as opposed to extensive farming), conventional, or industrial agriculture, is a type of agriculture, both of crop plants and of animals, with higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area. It is characterized by a low fallow ratio, higher use of inputs such as capital and labour, and higher crop yields per unit land area. Most commercial agriculture is intensive in one or more ways. Forms that rely heavily on industrial methods are often called industrial agriculture, which is characterised by innovations designed to increase yield. Techniques include planting multiple crops per year, reducing the frequency of fallow years, and improving cultivars. It also involves increased use of fertilizers, plant growth regulators, pesticides, antibiotics for livestock and mechanised agriculture, controlled by increased and more detailed analysis of growing conditions, including weather, soil, water, weeds, and pests. Intensive farms are widespread in developed nations and increasingly prevalent worldwide. Most of the meat, dairy products, eggs, fruits, and vegetables available in supermarkets are produced by such farms. Some intensive farms can use sustainable methods, although this typically necessitates higher inputs of labor or lower yields. Sustainably increasing agricultural productivity, especially on smallholdings, is an important way of decreasing the amount of land needed for farming and slowing environmental degradation through processes like deforestation. Intensive animal farming involves large numbers of animals raised on limited land, for example by rotational grazing, or in the Western world sometimes as concentrated animal feeding operations. These methods increase the yields of food and fiber per acre as compared to extensive animal husbandry; concentrated feed is brought to seldom-moved animals, or with rotational grazing the animals are repeatedly moved to fresh forage. (en)
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The bundle of rights is a metaphor to explain the complexities of property ownership. Law school professors of introductory property law courses frequently use this conceptualization to describe "full" property ownership as a partition of various entitlements of different stakeholders. The bundle of rights is commonly taught in US first-year law school property classes to explain how a property can simultaneously be "owned" by multiple parties. The term, "bundle of rights," likely came into use during the late 19th century and continued to gain ground thereafter. Prior to that, the idea of property entailed more the owner's dominion over a thing, placing restrictions on others from interfering with the owner's property. "Bundle of rights," however, implies rules specifying, proscribing, or authorizing actions on the part of the owner. Ownership of land is a much more complex proposition than simply acquiring all the rights to it. It is useful to imagine a bundle of rights that can be separated and reassembled. A "bundle of sticks" – in which each stick represents an individual right – is a common analogy made for the bundle of rights. Any property owner possesses a set of "sticks" related directly to the land. For example, perfection of a mechanic's lien takes some, but not all, rights out of the bundle held by the owner. Extinguishing that lien returns those rights or "sticks" to the bundle held by the owner. In the United States (and under common law) the fullest possible title to real estate is called "fee simple absolute." Even the US federal government's ownership of land is restricted in some ways by state property law. (en) +
Fauna is all of the animal life present in a particular region or time. The corresponding term for plants is flora, and for fungi, it is funga. Flora, fauna, funga and other forms of life are collectively referred to as biota. Zoologists and paleontologists use fauna to refer to a typical collection of animals found in a specific time or place, e.g. the "Sonoran Desert fauna" or the "Burgess Shale fauna". Paleontologists sometimes refer to a sequence of faunal stages, which is a series of rocks all containing similar fossils. The study of animals of a particular region is called faunistics. (en) +
Le féminisme est un ensemble de mouvements et d'idées philosophiques ayant pour vocation de définir et de promouvoir l'égalité (politique, économique, culturelle, sociale et juridique) entre les femmes et les hommes en militant pour les droits des femmes dans la société civile et dans la vie privée. Le féminisme a pour objectif d'abolir, dans ces différents domaines, les inégalités dont sont victimes les femmes. Si le terme « féminisme » ne prend son sens actuel qu'à la fin du XIXe siècle sous les plumes d'Alexandre Dumas et d'Hubertine Auclert, les idées de libération et d'émancipation des femmes prennent leurs racines dans le siècle des Lumières et se réclament de mouvements plus anciens ou de combats menés dans d'autres contextes historiques. L’objectif principal de la première vague féministe est que hommes et femmes deviennent égaux devant la loi. Le mouvement féministe a produit une grande diversité d’ et philosophiques. La deuxième vague féministe, qui intervient à la fin des années 1960 avec la naissance du Mouvement de libération des femmes (MLF) et du Women's Lib, a ainsi élaboré plusieurs concepts qui entendent rendre compte de la spécificité du rapport de domination exercé par les hommes sur les femmes. C'est à cette période qu'est reformulé le concept de patriarcat, élaboré celui de sexisme et que l'accent est mis sur la sphère privée comme lieu privilégié de la domination masculine : « le privé est politique ». Les revendications touchant au contrôle de leur corps par les femmes (avortement, contraception) sont placées au premier plan mais, plus largement, c'est à la construction de nouveaux rapports sociaux de sexe qu'appellent les féministes de cette deuxième vague. Dans cette perspective, la notion de « genre » entend « dénaturaliser » les rapports entre les sexes. Sous le nom de troisième vague féministe, on désigne à partir des années 1990, un large ensemble de revendications exprimées par des militantes féministes issues de groupes minoritaires, dans le sillage du Black feminism. (fr) , Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism incorporates the position that society prioritizes the male point of view and that women are treated unjustly in these societies. Efforts to change this include fighting against gender stereotypes and improving educational, professional, and interpersonal opportunities and outcomes for women. Feminist movements have campaigned and continue to campaign for women's rights, including the right to vote, run for public office, work, earn equal pay, own property, receive education, enter contracts, have equal rights within marriage, and maternity leave. Feminists have also worked to ensure access to contraception, legal abortions, and social integration and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment, and domestic violence. Changes in female dress standards and acceptable physical activities for females have often been part of feminist movements. Many scholars consider feminist campaigns to be a main force behind major historical societal changes for women's rights, particularly in the West, where they are near-universally credited with achieving women's suffrage, gender-neutral language, reproductive rights for women (including access to contraceptives and abortion), and the right to enter into contracts and own property. Although feminist advocacy is, and has been, mainly focused on women's rights, some feminists argue for the inclusion of men's liberation within its aims, because they believe that men are also harmed by traditional gender roles. Feminist theory, which emerged from feminist movements, aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived experience; feminist theorists have developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues concerning gender. Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years, representing different viewpoints and political aims. Traditionally, since the 19th century, first-wave liberal feminism that sought political and legal equality through reforms within a liberal democratic framework was contrasted with labour-based proletarian women's movements that over time developed into socialist and Marxist feminism based on class struggle theory. Since the 1960s, both of these traditions are also contrasted with radical feminism that arose from the radical wing of second-wave feminism and that calls for a radical reordering of society to eliminate male supremacy; together liberal, socialist and radical feminism are sometimes called the "Big Three" schools of feminist thought. Since the late 20th century, many newer forms of feminism have emerged. Some forms have been criticized as taking into account only white, middle class, college-educated, heterosexual, or cisgender perspectives. These criticisms have led to the creation of ethnically specific or multicultural forms of feminism, such as black feminism and intersectional feminism. Some feminists have argued that feminism often promotes misandry and the elevation of women's interests above men's, and criticize radical feminist positions as harmful to both men and women. (en)
Un festival est une manifestation à caractère festif, organisée à époque fixe et récurrente annuellement, autour d'une activité liée au spectacle, aux arts, aux loisirs, d'une durée de un ou plusieurs jours. (fr) +, A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, or eid. A festival constitutes typical cases of glocalization, as well as the high culture-low culture interrelationship. Next to religion and folklore, a significant origin is agricultural. Food is such a vital resource that many festivals are associated with harvest time. Religious commemoration and thanksgiving for good harvests are blended in events that take place in autumn, such as Halloween in the northern hemisphere and Easter in the southern. Festivals often serve to fulfill specific communal purposes, especially in regard to commemoration or thanking to the gods, goddesses or saints: they are called patronal festivals. They may also provide entertainment, which was particularly important to local communities before the advent of mass-produced entertainment. Festivals that focus on cultural or ethnic topics also seek to inform community members of their traditions; the involvement of elders sharing stories and experience provides a means for unity among families. Attendants of festivals are often motivated by a desire for escapism, socialization and camaraderie; the practice has been seen as a means of creating geographical connection, belonging and adaptability. (en) +
A community land trust (CLT) is a nonprofit corporation that holds land on behalf of a place-based community, while serving as the long-term steward for affordable housing, community gardens, civic buildings, commercial spaces and other community assets on behalf of a community. CLTs balance the needs of individuals who want security of tenure in occupying and using land and housing, with the needs of the surrounding community, striving to secure a variety of social purposes such as maintaining the affordability of local housing, preventing the displacement of vulnerable residents, and promoting economic and racial inclusion. Across the world, there is enormous diversity among CLTs in the ways that real property is owned, used, and operated and the ways that the CLT itself is guided and governed by people living on and around a CLT’s land. (en) +, Un Community Land Trust, appelé en droit français organisme foncier solidaire, est une personne morale à but non lucratif ayant pour objet de détenir la propriété de terrains sur lesquels des logements sont bâtis, et ce afin que ces derniers restent perpétuellement à coût abordable, et nettement inférieurs au prix du marché. (fr) +
La finance recouvre un domaine d'activité — celui du financement — qui consiste à fournir l'argent nécessaire à la réalisation d'une opération économique. Ce domaine concerne aussi bien les individus, les ménages que les entreprises publiques ou privées, mais aussi les États. La recherche de financement obéit à deux types d'objectifs suivant le volume initial de capital :
* à niveau de capital restreint, on cherche à obtenir des capitaux nécessaires et suffisants pour entreprendre, maintenir ou développer une activité ;
* à niveau de capital avéré, l'objectif est de trouver les placements les plus pertinents en performance et en sécurité en fonction de la valeur temps de l'argent. Le mot « finance » peut également désigner :
* soit les techniques qui permettent de façon raisonnée d'obtenir et de placer des capitaux ;
* soit les agents économiques ou les institutions qui recherchent des capitaux disponibles ou souhaitent en placer (soit une définition liminaire qui serait : acheter ou vendre de l'argent). Pour se financer, un agent économique (une organisation privée ou publique, ou un particulier) peut procéder :
* par autofinancement, c'est-à-dire en utilisant ses bénéfices antérieurs ou ses réserves financières disponibles ;
* par financement direct en faisant appel au marché financier (émission d'actions ou d'obligations) ;
* par financement indirect ou intermédié en ayant recours au crédit bancaire. (fr) +, Finance is the study and discipline of money, currency and capital assets. It is related to, but not synonymous with economics, the study of production, distribution, and consumption of money, assets, goods and services (the discipline of financial economics bridges the two).Finance activities take place in financial systems at various scopes, thus the field can be roughly divided into personal, corporate, and public finance. In a financial system, assets are bought, sold, or traded as financial instruments, such as currencies, loans, bonds, shares, stocks, options, futures, etc. Assets can also be banked, invested, and insured to maximize value and minimize loss. In practice, risks are always present in any financial action and entities. A broad range of subfields within finance exist due to its wide scope. Asset, money, risk and investment management aim to maximize value and minimize volatility. Financial analysis is viability, stability, and profitability assessment of an action or entity. In some cases, theories in finance can be tested using the scientific method, covered by experimental finance. Some fields are multidisciplinary, such as mathematical finance, financial law, financial economics, financial engineering and financial technology. These fields are the foundation of business and accounting. The early history of finance parallels the early history of money, which is prehistoric. Ancient and medieval civilizations incorporated basic functions of finance, such as banking, trading and accounting, into their economies. In the late 19th century, the global financial system was formed. It was in the middle of the 20th century that finance emerged as a distinct academic discipline, separate from economics. (The first academic journal, The Journal of Finance, began publication in 1946.) The earliest doctoral programs in finance were established in the 1960s and 1970s.Finance is widely studied at the undergraduate and masters level. (en) +
A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines a forest as, "Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban use." Using this definition, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 (FRA 2020) found that forests covered 4.06 billion hectares (10.0 billion acres; 40.6 million square kilometres; 15.7 million square miles), or approximately 31 percent of the world's land area in 2020. Forests are the predominant terrestrial ecosystem of Earth, and are found around the globe. More than half of the world's forests are found in only five countries (Brazil, Canada, China, Russia, and the United States). The largest share of forests (45 percent) are in the tropical latitudes, followed by those in the boreal, temperate, and subtropic domains. Forests account for 75% of the gross primary production of the Earth's biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earth's plant biomass. Net primary production is estimated at 21.9 gigatonnes of biomass per year for tropical forests, 8.1 for temperate forests, and 2.6 for boreal forests. Forests at different latitudes and elevations, and with different precipitation and evapotranspiration form distinctly different biomes: boreal forests around the North Pole, tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests around the Equator, and temperate forests at the middle latitudes. Areas at higher elevations tend to support forests similar to those at higher latitudes, and the amount of precipitation also affects forest composition. Almost half the forest area (49 percent) is relatively intact, while 9 percent is found in fragments with little or no connectivity. Tropical rainforests and boreal coniferous forests are the least fragmented, whereas subtropical dry forests and temperate oceanic forests are among the most fragmented. Roughly 80 percent of the world's forest area is found in patches larger than 1 million hectares (2.5 million acres). The remaining 20 percent is located in more than 34 million patches around the world – the vast majority less than 1,000 hectares (2,500 acres) in size. Human society and forests influence each other in both positive and negative ways. Forests provide ecosystem services to humans and serve as tourist attractions. Forests can also affect people's health. Human activities, including unsustainable use of forest resources, can negatively affect forest ecosystems. (en)
Cooperating Associations, also known as interpretive associations or natural history associations, support the interpretive, educational and scientific programs and services of governmental land management agencies such as the National Park Service, USDA Forest Service, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Land Management, US Army Corps of Engineers, or state park departments. Associations assist in the production of site-specific products, distribute educational and scientific publications produced by agencies, donate materials for use in interpretive programs and exhibits, and work to secure grants and funding. This is accomplished through bookstore sales, membership support, publication and product development, research funding, and other educational programs and activities. They must hold a federally tax-exempt, not-for-profit status under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. (en) +
Le fructus (du latin signifiant « fruit ») est le droit de disposer des fruits d'une chose, parce qu'on en est le propriétaire ou l'usufruitier. Il se distingue :
* de l'usus qui est le droit d'user d'une chose,
* de l'abusus qui est le droit de disposer d'une chose, et notamment de l'aliéner. Ces trois droits composent le droit de propriété. L'association de l'usus et du fructus compose le droit d'utiliser une chose et de jouir de ses fruits (« usufruit »). Le fructus est un droit réel en ce sens qu'il s'exerce sur une chose, par opposition aux droits personnels qui s'exercent à l'encontre d'une personne (créance). (fr) +, Fructus (Latin for "fruits") is a legal term used in Roman law to describe goods naturally created by other property. In the most traditional understanding, this encompasses literal fruit of various plants, but also goods taken from animals such as milk or wool. There is some debate whether profits arising from other legal actions, such as loan interest, can be considered fructus – ancient jurisprudents usually strayed from such interpretations, but did argue to treat such profits in analogical ways. (en) +
