Attribut:Résumé DBP
De Remix Biens Communs
Cette propriété est de type Monolingual text.
B
Une bourse, au sens économique et financier, est une institution, privée ou publique, qui permet de découvrir et d'afficher le prix d'actifs standardisés et d'en faciliter (d'apparier) les échanges dans des conditions de sécurité satisfaisante pour l'acheteur et le vendeur. Une bourse abrite un marché réglementé et organisé dont la présence est permanente, contrairement à un marché (de campagne par exemple) dont la présence est éphémère, mais dont les fonctions sont voisines. Elle s'insère dans une chaîne logistique complexe de passation des ordres, de clearing des ordres et de livraison des titres (ou autres). La bourse est une institution de l'économie de marché, car elle assure la formation continue des prix par confrontation de l'offre et de la demande. Elle est généralement surveillée par un régulateur qui assure sa neutralité de fonctionnement (équité de traitement des investisseurs), la bonne circulation des informations (communiqués) et la police du marché si nécessaire (notifications, enquêtes, sanctions). Les bourses étaient autrefois abritées dans des bâtiments spéciaux destinés à accueillir les opérateurs qui en assuraient le fonctionnement : courtiers, agents de change (aujourd'hui disparus), et autres membres. Ces membres assuraient les cotations à la bourse par divers systèmes de formation des prix tels que criée, casiers ou boites. Les bourses se sont progressivement dématérialisées et ont migré sur des réseaux informatiques qui assurent les mêmes fonctions, sans qu'une présence physique des opérateurs en un même lieu soit nécessaire. Des opérateurs purement logiciels sont apparus dans les dernières décennies. On distingue :
* les bourses des valeurs : actions, obligations, produits dérivés (options, bons de souscription), OPCVM ;
* les bourses de matières premières (métaux, hydrocarbures, céréales, etc.) ou de biens de consommation en gros (diamants, fleurs, etc.). L'or et l'argent ont un statut un peu particulier « compartiment » qui est dû à leur ancienne fonction monétaire ;
* les bourses spécialisées dans les contrats à terme, futures (matière première par exemple pétrole, produits finis, par exemple jus d'orange, produits financiers, par exemple indice boursier), comme le LIFFE. Employé seul dans un contexte financier, le terme « bourse » réfère le plus souvent à une bourse de valeurs, de matières premières ou de produits financiers spécialisés (de type futures). (fr) , An exchange, bourse (/bʊərs/), trading exchange or trading venue is an organized market where (especially) tradable securities, commodities, foreign exchange, futures, and options contracts are bought and sold. (en) +
Un brevet est un titre de propriété industrielle qui confère à son titulaire une exclusivité d'exploitation de l'invention brevetée à compter, en principe, de la date de dépôt et pour une durée maximale de 20 ans. Un droit de brevet n'est pas un droit d'exploitation, c'est-à-dire autorisant l'exploitation de l'invention brevetée. En effet, le droit d’exploitation peut être soumis à un autre formalisme tel que l'obtention d'une autorisation de mise sur le marché, une certification, etc. Certains États peuvent au moment de l'inscription fournir un « brevet provisoire » et accorder un « délai de grâce » qui évite la nullité du brevet pour un inventeur ayant exposé son invention avant le dépôt de brevet, dans un cadre non confidentiel. Ceci présente l'avantage de permettre la diffusion rapide des connaissances techniques tout en réservant l'exploitation industrielle de l'invention, ainsi que quelques inconvénients[Lesquels ?]. Selon les pays c'est le premier « inventeur » ou le premier « déposant » (en Europe) qui a priorité pour le brevet. Le brevet n'est valable que sur un territoire déterminé, pour un État déterminé. Il est possible de déposer une demande de brevet auprès d'un État (auprès de l'USPTO pour les États-Unis, de l'INPI pour la France, du JPO pour le Japon…), ou auprès d'un groupe de pays (auprès de l'Office européen des brevets pour 39 pays européens, dépôt d'une demande internationale de brevet pour les 142 pays signataires du Traité de coopération sur les brevets, dite demande PCT). À la délivrance, le demandeur recevra autant de brevets nationaux que d'États où une protection est recherchée. En contrepartie du droit, pour le titulaire du brevet, d'interdire à autrui de reproduire l'invention sans son autorisation, l'invention doit être divulguée dans le texte du brevet de manière pleine et entière de manière que quiconque puisse la reproduire. Dans la majorité des cas, les demandes de brevet sont automatiquement publiées à l'issue d'une période de 18 mois à compter de la date de priorité revendiquée la plus ancienne. En Europe, des brevets sur des dispositifs médicaux, des produits pharmaceutiques ou phytosanitaires peuvent être prolongés de cinq ans au plus sous réserve de l'obtention d'un certificat complémentaire de protection (règlement CE 1768/92). En décembre 2020, dans le cadre de la pandémie de Covid-19, l'Organisation mondiale du commerce débat exceptionnellement sur la libération des brevets sur les vaccins. (fr) , A patent is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the legal right to exclude others from making, using, or selling an invention for a limited period of time in exchange for publishing an enabling disclosure of the invention. In most countries, patent rights fall under private law and the patent holder must sue someone infringing the patent in order to enforce their rights. In some industries patents are an essential form of competitive advantage; in others they are irrelevant. The procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the scope of protection that is being sought. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right. Under the World Trade Organization's (WTO) TRIPS Agreement, patents should be available in WTO member states for any invention, in all fields of technology, provided they are new, involve an inventive step, and are capable of industrial application. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, also among WTO member states. TRIPS also provides that the term of protection available should be a minimum of twenty years. (en) +
Pour un agent économique (à savoir un individu, un ménage, une association, une entreprise, un État...) ou une entité (à savoir un équipement, un service, un établissement, un projet, une mission, une fonction...) le budget est un document récapitulatif des recettes et des dépenses prévisionnelles déterminées et chiffrées pour un exercice comptable à venir (généralement l'année). La démarche budgétaire peut concerner le domaine de la gestion privée ou publique. Le présent article ne traite que des concepts et des pratiques ayant trait à la gestion privée (voir par ailleurs les articles détaillés : le Budget de l'État ou le Budget de l'État français ou le Budget de l'Union européenne). (fr) +, A budget is a calculation plan, usually but not always financial, for a defined period, often one year or a month. A budget may include anticipated sales volumes and revenues, resource quantities including time, costs and expenses, environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas emissions, other impacts, assets, liabilities and cash flows. Companies, governments, families, and other organizations use budgets to express strategic plans of activities in measurable terms. A budget expresses intended expenditures along with proposals for how to meet them with resources. A budget may express a surplus, providing resources for use at a future time, or a deficit in which expenditures exceed income or other resources. (en) +
Sumak kawsay is a neologism in Quechua created in the 1990s by socialist-indigenous organizations. Originally created as a political and cultural proposal, Ecuadorian and Bolivian governments later adopted it. The term refers to the implementation of a socialism that moves away from Western socialist theory and instead embraces the ancestral, communitarian knowledge and lifestyle of Quechua people. In Ecuador, it has been translated as buen vivir or "good living", although experts in the Quechua language agree that a more precise translation would be "the plentiful life". In Bolivia, the original word in Aimaran is suma qamaña which has been translated as vivir bien or living well. In the original Quechua phrase, sumak refers to the ideal and beautiful fulfillment of the planet, and kawsay means "life," a life with dignity, plenitude, balance, and harmony. Similar ideas exist in other indigenous communities, such as the Mapuche (Chile), the Guaraní (Bolivia and Paraguay), the Achuar (Ecuadorian Amazon), the Guna (Panamá), etc. Mayan Tsotsil and Tseltal peoples pursue Lekil Kuxlejal (a fair-dignified life), which is considered equivalent to Buen Vivir and has influenced the development Neozapatismo. Since the 1990s, sumak kawsay has grown into a political project that aims to achieve collective wellbeing, social responsibility in how people relate to nature, and a halt to endless capital accumulation. This final aspect makes the project an alternative to traditional development. Buen vivir proposes the collective realization of a harmonious and balanced life based on ethical values, in place of a development model that views human beings as an economic resource. Indigenous movements in Ecuador and Bolivia, along with intellectuals, initially used the concept to define an alternative paradigm to capitalist development with cosmological, holistic, and political dimensions. The 2008 Constitution of Ecuador incorporated the concept of the rights of nature, as did the 2009 Constitution of Bolivia. Diverse theorists, such as economists Alberto Acosta and Magdalena León, say that sumak kawsay is not about a finished and completely structured theory, but rather an unfinished social proposal that can be improved. (en)
, A business improvement district (BID) is a defined area within which businesses are required to pay an additional tax (or levy) in order to fund projects within the district's boundaries. The BID is often funded primarily through the levy but can also draw on other public and private funding streams. BIDs may go by other names, such as business improvement area (BIA), business revitalization zone (BRZ), community improvement district (CID), special services area (SSA), or special improvement district (SID). These districts typically fund services which are perceived by some businesses as being inadequately performed by government with its existing tax revenues, such as cleaning streets, providing security, making capital improvements, construction of pedestrian and streetscape enhancements, and marketing the area. The services provided by BIDs are supplemental to those already provided by the municipality. The revenue derives from a tax assessment on commercial property owners, and in some cases, residential property owners. (en) +
C
Un camp de réfugiés est un camp temporaire construit par des gouvernements ou des ONG (telles que la Croix-Rouge) pour recevoir des réfugiés. C'est un espace humanitaire artificiel, fondé sur un système urbain pour une durée limitée à la suite d'une catastrophe naturelle ou d'une crise politique. Certains camps peuvent accueillir jusqu'à plusieurs milliers de personnes. (fr) +, A refugee camp is a temporary settlement built to receive refugees and people in refugee-like situations. Refugee camps usually accommodate displaced people who have fled their home country, but camps are also made for internally displaced people. Usually, refugees seek asylum after they have escaped war in their home countries, but some camps also house environmental and economic migrants. Camps with over a hundred thousand people are common, but as of 2012, the average-sized camp housed around 11,400. They are usually built and run by a government, the United Nations, international organizations (such as the International Committee of the Red Cross), or non-governmental organization. Unofficial refugee camps, such as Idomeni in Greece or the Calais jungle in France, are where refugees are largely left without support of governments or international organizations. Refugee camps generally develop in an impromptu fashion with the aim of meeting basic human needs for only a short time. Facilities that make a camp look or feel more permanent are often prohibited by host country governments. If the return of refugees is prevented (often by civil war), a humanitarian crisis can result or continue. According to UNHCR, most refugees worldwide do not live in refugee camps. At the end of 2015, some 67% of refugees around the world lived in individual, private accommodations. This can be partly explained by the high number of Syrian refugees renting apartments in urban agglomerations across the Middle East. Worldwide, slightly over a quarter (25.4%) of refugees were reported to be living in managed camps. At the end of 2015, about 56% of the total refugee population in rural locations resided in a managed camp, compared to the 2% who resided in individual accommodation. In urban locations, the overwhelming majority (99%) of refugees lived in individual accommodations, compared with less than 1% who lived in a managed camp. A small percentage of refugees also live in collective centers, transit camps, and self-settled camps. Despite 74% of refugees being in urban areas, the service delivery model of international humanitarian aid agencies remains focused on the establishment and operation of refugee camps. (en)
Empowerment is the degree of autonomy and self-determination in people and in communities. This enables them to represent their interests in a responsible and self-determined way, acting on their own authority. It is the process of becoming stronger and more confident, especially in controlling one's life and claiming one's rights. Empowerment as action refers both to the process of self-empowerment and to professional support of people, which enables them to overcome their sense of powerlessness and lack of influence, and to recognize and use their resources. As a term, empowerment originates from American community psychology and is associated with the social scientist Julian Rappaport (1981). However, the roots of empowerment theory extend further into history and are linked to Marxist sociological theory. These sociological ideas have continued to be developed and refined through Neo-Marxist Theory (also known as Critical Theory). In social work, empowerment forms a practical approach of resource-oriented intervention. In the field of citizenship education and democratic education, empowerment is seen as a tool to increase the responsibility of the citizen. Empowerment is a key concept in the discourse on promoting civic engagement. Empowerment as a concept, which is characterized by a move away from a deficit-oriented towards a more strength-oriented perception, can increasingly be found in management concepts, as well as in the areas of continuing education and self-help. (en) +
Le capitalisme désigne un système économique caractérisé par la propriété privée des moyens de production. Par extension, le terme peut également désigner l'organisation sociale induite par ce système ou un système fondé sur l'accumulation du capital productif guidée par la recherche du profit. Les économistes, les sociologues et les historiens ont adopté des perspectives différentes dans leurs analyses du capitalisme et en ont reconnu diverses formes dans la pratique dont le capitalisme de laissez-faire, l'économie sociale de marché ou le capitalisme d'État. Les différentes formes de capitalisme présentent des degrés variables de marché, de propriété privée, d'obstacles à la libre concurrence et d'implication de l'État à travers les politiques sociales et sont du ressort des politiques et de la loi. La plupart des économies capitalistes existantes sont des économies mixtes, qui combinent des éléments de libre marché avec l'intervention de l'État et, dans certains cas, la planification économique. Le système capitaliste a connu une diffusion croissante depuis la révolution industrielle et est actuellement le système économique de la plupart des pays de la planète suite à l'échec du modèle marxiste avec la chute du Mur de Berlin. Il lui est fait de nombreuses critiques concernant notamment la morale, la validité des théories économiques, le rôle de l'État, le pouvoir du capitaliste, le partage de la valeur ajoutée et du profit, l'organisation du travail ou encore les relations internationales. En outre, l'implication du capitalisme dans de grandes questions sociétales, comme l'impérialisme ou les dégâts fait à l'environnement, font l'objet de controverses. Pour cette raison, le mot capitalisme est généralement employé avec une connotation critique ou une volonté de s'opposer à ce système, notamment par les tenants du marxisme et de l'anarchisme. (fr) +, Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price system, private property, property rights recognition, voluntary exchange, and wage labor. In a market economy, decision-making and investments are determined by owners of wealth, property, or ability to maneuver capital or production ability in capital and financial markets—whereas prices and the distribution of goods and services are mainly determined by competition in goods and services markets. Economists, historians, political economists and sociologists have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire or free-market capitalism, anarcho-capitalism, state capitalism and welfare capitalism. Different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership, obstacles to free competition and state-sanctioned social policies. The degree of competition in markets and the role of intervention and regulation as well as the scope of state ownership vary across different models of capitalism. The extent to which different markets are free and the rules defining private property are matters of politics and policy. Most of the existing capitalist economies are mixed economies that combine elements of free markets with state intervention and in some cases economic planning. Market economies have existed under many forms of government and in many different times, places and cultures. Modern capitalist societies developed in Western Europe in a process that led to the Industrial Revolution. Capitalist systems with varying degrees of direct government intervention have since become dominant in the Western world and continue to spread. Economic growth is a characteristic tendency of capitalist economies. (en) +
Les capitaux propres, très proches des fonds propres, sont, en comptabilité, les ressources (passif) d'une société qui appartiennent à ses actionnaires, par opposition aux dettes vis-à-vis des fournisseurs ou des banques par exemple. Ils se composent du capital social, des réserves et du report à nouveau (correspondant aux bénéfices qui n'ont pas été redistribués en dividende), et du résultat net de l'exercice fiscal. Les fonds propres sont un peu plus larges que les capitaux propres puisque : fonds propres = capitaux propres + émissions de titres participatifs + avances conditionnées + droits du concédant. Il est vrai toutefois que pour la plupart des entreprises, les capitaux propres ont une valeur très proche des fonds propres. Cette notion est parfois étendue aux « quasi-fonds propres », qui regroupent des ressources stables n'ayant pas le caractère de capitaux propres, telles que les comptes courants d'associés, les emprunts participatifs ou les obligations convertibles. (fr) +, In finance, equity is ownership of assets that may have debts or other liabilities attached to them. Equity is measured for accounting purposes by subtracting liabilities from the value of the assets. For example, if someone owns a car worth $24,000 and owes $10,000 on the loan used to buy the car, the difference of $14,000 is equity. Equity can apply to a single asset, such as a car or house, or to an entire business. A business that needs to start up or expand its operations can sell its equity in order to raise cash that does not have to be repaid on a set schedule. When liabilities attached to an asset exceed its value, the difference is called a deficit and the asset is informally said to be "underwater" or "upside-down". In government finance or other non-profit settings, equity is known as "net position" or "net assets". (en) +
La cartographie est la réalisation et l'étude des cartes géographiques et géologiques. Elle est très dépendante de la géodésie, science qui s'efforce de décrire, mesurer et rendre compte de la forme et des dimensions de la Terre. Le principe majeur de la cartographie est la représentation de données sur un support réduit représentant un espace généralement tenu pour réel. L'objectif de la carte, c'est une représentation concise et efficace, la simplification de phénomènes complexes (politiques, économiques, sociaux, etc.) à l'œuvre sur l'espace représenté afin de permettre une compréhension rapide et pertinente. La création de carte débute avec la définition du projet cartographique. La collecte d'informations est en deux parties : 1.
* fond de carte : relevé des contours et de l'espace support à représenter ; 2.
* relevé des données statistiques à représenter sur cet espace. Vient ensuite un travail de sélection des informations, de conception graphique (icônes, styles), puis d'assemblage (création de la carte), et de renseignement de la carte (légende, échelle, rose des vents). La création cartographique est également étudiée, ses méthodes commentées. Des analyses mathématiques comparent par exemple les distorsions des projections cartographiques, tandis que les théories de l'information graphique donnent des conseils quant au style nécessaire à un message graphique clair. Étant le fruit de sélections humaines, la carte peut omettre, nier, tromper. L' des cartes est ici intéressante, puisqu'elle révèle les biais.Les acteurs principaux de la cartographie étaient traditionnellement les explorateurs et les cartographes, afin de définir l'espace des États, et les espaces des territoires explorés. Aujourd'hui, la cartographie moderne est transdisciplinaire et s'applique à quantité de sciences : la géologie pour les géologues, la biologie pour les biologistes, l'urbanisme pour les architectes, la sociologie pour les sociologues… nécessitent une collaboration entre cartographes, experts, et analystes de données. Les données numériques et satellitaires font de l'informatique et de l'informaticien de nouveaux partenaires-clefs, tandis que les netizens rejoignent depuis peu le groupe avec la et la cartographie d'information. Au XXIe siècle, rares sont les cartographes « purs ». Effectivement, la géographie et l'informatique sont couplées : cet ensemble forme la géomatique. Les géomaticiens sont des professionnels capables de réaliser de la cartographie mais aussi de gérer des systèmes d'information (données, bases de données, architectures informatiques…), spécifiquement appelés des SIG. (fr) , Cartography (/kɑːrˈtɒɡrəfi/; from Ancient Greek: χάρτης chartēs, "papyrus, sheet of paper, map"; and γράφειν graphein, "write") is the study and practice of making and using maps. Combining science, aesthetics and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality (or an imagined reality) can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively. The fundamental objectives of traditional cartography are to:
* Set the map's agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing. Traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as toponyms or political boundaries.
* Represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections.
* Eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the map's purpose. This is the concern of generalization.
* Reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization.
* Orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of . Modern cartography constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems (GIS) and geographic information science (GISc). (en) +
, In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The current rise in global average temperature is more rapid than previous changes, and is primarily caused by humans burning fossil fuels. Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices increase greenhouse gases, notably carbon dioxide and methane. Greenhouse gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight. Larger amounts of these gases trap more heat in Earth's lower atmosphere, causing global warming. Due to climate change, deserts are expanding, while heat waves and wildfires are becoming more common. Increased warming in the Arctic has contributed to melting permafrost, glacial retreat and sea ice loss. Higher temperatures are also causing more intense storms, droughts, and other weather extremes. Rapid environmental change in mountains, coral reefs, and the Arctic is forcing many species to relocate or become extinct. Even if efforts to minimise future warming are successful, some effects will continue for centuries. These include ocean heating, ocean acidification and sea level rise. Climate change threatens people with food and water scarcity, increased flooding, extreme heat, more disease, and economic loss. Human migration and conflict can also be a result. The World Health Organization (WHO) calls climate change the greatest threat to global health in the 21st century. Communities may adapt to climate change through efforts like coastline protection or expanding access to air conditioning, but some impacts are unavoidable. Poorer countries are responsible for a small share of global emissions, yet they have the least ability to adapt and are most vulnerable to climate change. Many climate change impacts are already felt at the current 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) level of warming. Additional warming will increase these impacts and may trigger tipping points, such as the melting of the Greenland ice sheet. Under the 2015 Paris Agreement, nations collectively agreed to keep warming "well under 2 °C". However, with pledges made under the Agreement, global warming would still reach about 2.7 °C (4.9 °F) by the end of the century. Limiting warming to 1.5 °C will require halving emissions by 2030 and achieving net-zero emissions by 2050. Reducing emissions requires generating electricity from low-carbon sources rather than burning fossil fuels. This change includes phasing out coal and natural gas fired power plants, vastly increasing use of wind, solar, and other types of renewable energy, and reducing energy use. Electricity generated from non-carbon-emitting sources will need to replace fossil fuels for powering transportation, heating buildings, and operating industrial facilities. Carbon can also be removed from the atmosphere, for instance by increasing forest cover and by farming with methods that capture carbon in soil. (en)
Les chartes sont des actes juridiques signés par plusieurs acteurs pour définir un objectif et parfois des moyens communs. Les chartes sont de natures variées :
* les chartes royales, par exemple la Grande Charte de Jean sans Terre en 1215, ou la Charte constitutionnelle de 1814 ;
* les chartes de franchise ;
* les chartes de commune. Il existe des chartes :
* de qualité de produit ou de service, de respect des délais
* des chartes concernant les pratiques professionnelles des personnels soignant ou accompagnant des personnes vulnérables (enfants, handicapés, personnes âgées, malades hospitalisés) Les chartes de fondation précisent les conditions de création d'un bâtiment civil (palais par exemple), militaire ou religieux (abbaye par exemple), d'une ville (bastide par exemple), d'une société ou d'une association. (fr) +, A charter is the grant of authority or rights, stating that the granter formally recognizes the prerogative of the recipient to exercise the rights specified. It is implicit that the granter retains superiority (or sovereignty), and that the recipient admits a limited (or inferior) status within the relationship, and it is within that sense that charters were historically granted, and it is that sense which is retained in modern usage of the term. The word entered the English language from the Old French charte, via Latin charta, and ultimately from Greek χάρτης (khartes, meaning "layer of papyrus"). It has come to be synonymous with a document that sets out a grant of rights or privileges. (en) +
La citoyenneté est le fait pour un individu, pour une famille ou pour un groupe, d'être reconnu officiellement comme citoyen, c'est-à-dire membre d'une ville ayant le statut de cité, ou plus générale d'un État. En France en 1789, le mot citoyen a remplacé celui de bourgeois. Il n'y a pas de citoyenneté en général, même si beaucoup de personnalités se sont revendiquées comme citoyens du monde ou cosmopolites. (fr) +, Citizenship is a "relationship between an individual and a state to which the individual owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection". Each state determines the conditions under which it will recognize persons as its citizens, and the conditions under which that status will be withdrawn. Recognition by a state as a citizen generally carries with it recognition of civil, political, and social rights which are not afforded to non-citizens. In general, the basic rights normally regarded as arising from citizenship are the right to a passport, the right to leave and return to the country/ies of citizenship, the right to live in that country, and to work there. Some countries permit their citizens to have multiple citizenships, while others insist on exclusive allegiance. (en) +
Le climat est la distribution statistique des conditions de l'atmosphère terrestre dans une région donnée pendant une période donnée. L'étude du climat est la climatologie. Elle se distingue de la météorologie qui désigne l'étude du temps à court terme et dans des zones ponctuelles. La caractérisation du climat est effectuée à partir de mesures statistiques annuelles et mensuelles sur des données atmosphériques locales : température, pression atmosphérique, précipitations, ensoleillement, humidité, vitesse du vent. Sont également pris en compte leur récurrence ainsi que les phénomènes exceptionnels. Ces analyses permettent de classer les climats des différentes régions du monde selon leurs caractéristiques principales. Le climat a fortement varié au cours de l'histoire de la Terre sous l'influence d’une pluralité de phénomènes astronomiques, géologiques, etc., et plus récemment sous l'effet des activités humaines (réchauffement climatique). (fr) +, Climate is the long-term weather pattern in an area, typically averaged over 30 years. More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation. In a broader sense, climate is the state of the components of the climate system, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere and the interactions between them. The climate of a location is affected by its latitude/longitude, terrain, altitude, land use and nearby water bodies and their currents. Climates can be classified according to the average and typical variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. The most widely used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification. The Thornthwaite system, in use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it. Finally, the Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region. Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates. Paleoclimatologists seek to explain climate variations for all parts of the Earth during any given geologic period, beginning with the time of the Earth's formation. Since very few direct observations of climate were available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables. They include non-biotic evidence—such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores—and biotic evidence—such as tree rings and coral. Climate models are mathematical models of past, present, and future climates. Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from various factors. Recent warming is discussed in global warming, which results in redistributions. For example, "a 3 °C [5 °F] change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300–400 km [190–250 mi] in latitude (in the temperate zone) or 500 m [1,600 ft] in elevation. Therefore, species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones." (en)
La cocréation est une pratique collaborative de développement d'une initiative. Elle met l'accent sur l'exploration et l'interdisciplinarité, implique de nouvelles relations entre une diversité de personnes et utilise un processus créatif pour générer des résultats significatifs. La cocréation consiste, pour une entreprise, à développer des produits ou services en collaboration active avec ses clients et ce, de façon durable. Après une première phase durant laquelle la cocréation a été utilisée comme un outil d’innovation pour les produits et les services, la cocréation se développe aujourd’hui comme vecteur de transformation des entreprises. La cocréation de produit ou service avec le client arrive au deuxième rang des priorités des dirigeants marketing pour la période 2010-2012 selon le baromètre Cegos. (fr) +
Une coopérative est la combinaison d'un regroupement de personnes et d'une entreprise fondée sur la participation économique des membres, en capital et en opérations. Son organisation et son fonctionnement sont caractérisés par des principes et des valeurs qui confèrent à chaque coopérative un caractère universel, quel que soit son objet ou son secteur d'activité. Une partie de ces principes et valeurs, comme la démocratie à travers l'égalité de voix entre les membres, est traduite en norme juridique. L'identité coopérative s'identifie par sept principes de coopération. Ainsi, pour les prises de décision, elle repose sur le principe démocratique « une personne = une voix » qui devra élire un conseil d'administration qui nommera un directeur général. Les salariés et les membres-usagers sont ainsi tous égaux en droit. (fr) +, A cooperative (also known as co-operative, co-op, or coop) is "an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically-controlled enterprise". Cooperatives are democratically controlled by their members, with each member having one vote in electing the board of directors.Cooperatives may include:
* businesses owned and managed by the people who consume their goods and/or services (a consumer cooperative)
* businesses where producers pool their output for their common benefit (a producer cooperative)
* organizations managed by the people who work there (a worker cooperative)
* businesses where members pool their purchasing power (a purchasing cooperative)
* multi-stakeholder or hybrid cooperatives that share ownership between different stakeholder groups. For example, care cooperatives where ownership is shared between both care-givers and receivers. Stakeholders might also include non-profits or investors.
* second- and third-tier cooperatives whose members are other cooperatives
* platform cooperatives that use a cooperatively owned and governed website, mobile app or a protocol to facilitate the sale of goods and services. Research published by the Worldwatch Institute found that in 2012 approximately one billion people in 96 countries had become members of at least one cooperative. The turnover of the largest three hundred cooperatives in the world reached $2.2 trillion. Cooperative businesses are typically more productive and economically resilient than many other forms of enterprise, with twice the number of co-operatives (80%) surviving their first five years compared with other business ownership models (41%) according to data from United Kingdom. The largest worker owned cooperative in the world, the Mondragon Corporation (founded by Catholic priest José María Arizmendiarrieta), has been in continuous operation since 1956. Cooperatives frequently have social goals, which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6.9% of their pre-tax profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2.4% for other rival supermarkets. Since 2002, cooperatives have been distinguishable on the Internet through the use of a .coop domain. In 2014, the International Co-operative Alliance (ICA) introduced the Cooperative Marque, meaning ICA cooperatives and WOCCU credit unions can also be identified through a coop ethical consumerism label. (en)
La collaboration est l'acte de travailler ou de réfléchir ensemble pour atteindre un objectif. Dans son sens commun, la collaboration est un processus par lequel deux ou plusieurs personnes ou organisations s’associent pour effectuer un travail intellectuel suivant des objectifs communs. Des méthodes structurées de collaboration encouragent l'introspection de comportements et communication. Ces méthodes ont pour objectif spécifique l'augmentation du taux de réussite des équipes quand elles se livrent à la résolution de problèmes en collaboration. Des schémas, rubriques et graphiques sont utiles afin de documenter objectivement les traits de personnalité afin d'améliorer les résultats des projets actuels et à venir. (fr) +, Collaboration (from Latin com- "with" + laborare "to labor", "to work") is the process of two or more people, entities or organizations working together to complete a task or achieve a goal. Collaboration is similar to cooperation. Most collaboration requires leadership, although the form of leadership can be social within a decentralized and egalitarian group. Teams that work collaboratively often access greater resources, recognition and rewards when facing competition for finite resources. Structured methods of collaboration encourage introspection of behavior and communication. Such methods aim to increase the success of teams as they engage in collaborative problem-solving. Collaboration is present in opposing goals exhibiting the notion of adversarial collaboration, though this is not a common use of the term. In its applied sense, "(a) collaboration is a purposeful relationship in which all parties strategically choose to cooperate in order to accomplish a shared outcome." (en) +
A collective is a group of entities that share or are motivated by at least one common issue or interest, or work together to achieve a common objective. Collectives can differ from cooperatives in that they are not necessarily focused upon an economic benefit or saving, but can be that as well. The term "collective" is sometimes used to describe a species as a whole—for example, the human collective. For political purposes, a collective is defined by decentralized, or "majority-rules" decision making styles. (en) +
Collective action refers to action taken together by a group of people whose goal is to enhance their condition and achieve a common objective. It is a term that has formulations and theories in many areas of the social sciences including psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science and economics. (en) +
A commoner, also known as the common man, commoners, the common people or the masses, was in earlier use an ordinary person in a community or nation who did not have any significant social status, especially a member of neither royalty, nobility, nor any part of the aristocracy. Depending on culture and period, other elevated persons (such members of clergy) may have had higher social status in their own right, or were regarded as commoners if lacking an aristocratic background. This class overlaps with the legal class of people who have a property interest in common land, a longstanding feature of land law in England and Wales. Commoners who have rights for a particular common are typically neighbors, not the public in general. (en) +
