Attribut:Résumé DBP
De Remix Biens Communs
Cette propriété est de type Monolingual text.
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La biodiversité désigne la variété des formes de vie sur la Terre. Ce terme est composé du préfixe bio (du grec βίος « vie ») et du mot « diversité ». Elle s'apprécie en considérant la diversité des écosystèmes, des espèces et des gènes dans l'espace et dans le temps, ainsi que les interactions au sein de ces niveaux d'organisation et entre eux. Lorsque la science cherche à évaluer la biodiversité d'un lieu particulier, les différents éléments des listes d'espèces, écosystèmes ou gènes sont pondérés en fonction de leur rareté. Depuis le sommet de la Terre de Rio de Janeiro en 1992, la préservation de la biodiversité est considérée comme un des enjeux essentiels du développement durable. L'adoption de la Convention sur la diversité biologique (CDB) au cours de ce sommet engage les pays signataires à protéger et restaurer la diversité du vivant. Au-delà des raisons éthiques, la biodiversité est essentielle aux sociétés humaines qui en sont entièrement dépendantes à travers les services écosystémiques. 2010 a été l'année internationale de la biodiversité, conclue par la Conférence de Nagoya sur la biodiversité, qui a reconnu l'échec de l'objectif international de stopper la régression de la biodiversité avant 2010, et proposé de nouveaux objectifs (protocole de Nagoya). En 2012, la Plateforme intergouvernementale sur la biodiversité et les services écosystémiques (IPBES), un groupe d'experts intergouvernemental sur le modèle du Groupe d'experts intergouvernemental sur l'évolution du climat (GIEC), a été lancée par le programme des Nations unies pour l'environnement pour conseiller les gouvernements sur cette thématique. En 2019, le nombre d'espèces menacées d'extinction est évalué à un million. (fr) +, Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic (genetic variability), species (species diversity), and ecosystem (ecosystem diversity) level. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth; it is usually greater in the tropics as a result of the warm climate and high primary productivity in the region near the equator. Tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10% of earth's surface and contain about 90% of the world's species. Marine biodiversity is usually higher along coasts in the Western Pacific, where sea surface temperature is highest, and in the mid-latitudinal band in all oceans. There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing through time, but will be likely to slow in the future as a primary result of deforestation. It encompasses the evolutionary, ecological, and cultural processes that sustain life. Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions. More than 99.9% of all species that ever lived on Earth, amounting to over five billion species, are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86% have not yet been described. The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037 and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as four trillion tons of carbon. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth. The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. There are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old meta-sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland. More recently, in 2015, "remains of biotic life" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth...then it could be common in the universe." Since life began on Earth, five major mass extinctions and several minor events have led to large and sudden drops in biodiversity. The Phanerozoic aeon (the last 540 million years) marked a rapid growth in biodiversity via the Cambrian explosion—a period during which the majority of multicellular phyla first appeared. The next 400 million years included repeated, massive biodiversity losses classified as mass extinction events. In the Carboniferous, rainforest collapse led to a great loss of plant and animal life. The Permian–Triassic extinction event, 251 million years ago, was the worst; vertebrate recovery took 30 million years. The most recent, the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, occurred 65 million years ago and has often attracted more attention than others because it resulted in the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs. The period since the emergence of humans has displayed an ongoing biodiversity reduction and an accompanying loss of genetic diversity. Named the Holocene extinction, and often referred to as the sixth mass extinction, the reduction is caused primarily by human impacts, particularly habitat destruction. Conversely, biodiversity positively impacts human health in many ways, although a few negative effects are studied. (en)
Dans le domaine de l'énergie, la biomasse est la matière organique d'origine végétale (microalgues incluses), animale, bactérienne ou fongique (champignons), utilisable comme source d'énergie (bioénergies). Cette énergie peut en être extraite par combustion directe (ex. : bois énergie), ou par combustion après un processus de transformation de la matière première, par exemple la méthanisation (biogaz, ou sa version épurée le biométhane) ou d'autres transformations chimiques (dont la pyrolyse, la carbonisation hydrothermale et les méthodes de production de biocarburants ou « agrocarburants »). Trois modes de valorisations de la biomasse (co)existent : thermique, chimique et biochimique. La biomasse intéresse à nouveau les pays riches, confrontés au changement climatique et à la perspective d'une crise des ressources en hydrocarbures fossiles ou uranium. Sous certaines conditions, elle répond à des enjeux de développement durable et d'économie circulaire ; en se substituant aux énergies fossiles pour réduire les émissions globales de gaz à effet de serre, en restaurant aussi parfois certains puits de carbone (semi-naturels dans le cas des boisements et haies exploités). En quelques décennies des filières nouvelles sont apparues : agrocarburants, granulés de bois, méthanisation industrielle, créant des tensions sur certaines ressources, avec de nouveaux risques de surexploitation de la ressource et de remplacement de cultures vivrières par des cultures énergétiques. En France, une stratégie nationale de mobilisation de la biomasse (2018) vise à augmenter la quantité de biomasse collectée, en créant le moins possible d'effets collatéraux négatifs sur la biodiversité, les paysages et d'autres filières dépendantes de la même ressource. En 2019, selon l'Agence internationale de l'énergie, la biomasse fournissait 56 813 PJ d'énergie, soit 9,2 % de l'énergie primaire consommée dans le monde, 542,6 TWh d'électricité, soit 2,0 % de la production mondiale d'électricité, et 3,3 % de l'énergie consommée par les transports. Selon un rapport de la Commission européenne, la bioénergie pourrait couvrir jusqu'à 13 % de la demande énergétique de l'UE. (fr) , Biomass is plant-based material used as fuel to produce heat or electricity. Examples are wood and wood residues, energy crops, agricultural residues, and waste from industry, farms and households. Since biomass can be used as a fuel directly (e.g. wood logs), some people use the words biomass and biofuel interchangeably. Others subsume one term under the other. Government authorities in the US and the EU define biofuel as a liquid or gaseous fuel, used for transportation. The European Union's Joint Research Centre use the concept solid biofuel and define it as raw or processed organic matter of biological origin used for energy, for instance firewood, wood chips and wood pellets. In 2019, 57 EJ (exajoules) of energy were produced from biomass, compared to 190 EJ from crude oil, 168 EJ from coal, 144 EJ from natural gas, 30 EJ from nuclear, 15 EJ from hydro and 13 EJ from wind, solar and geothermal combined. Approximately 86% of modern bioenergy is used for heating applications, with 9% used for transport and 5% for electricity. Most of the global bioenergy is produced from forest resources. Power plants that use biomass as fuel can produce a stable power output, unlike the intermittent power produced by solar or wind farms. In 2017, the IEA (International Energy Agency) described bioenergy as the most important source of renewable energy. The IEA also argued that the current rate of bioenergy deployment is well below the levels required in future low carbon scenarios, and that accelerated deployment is urgently needed. In IEA's Net Zero by 2050 scenario, traditional bioenergy is phased out by 2030, and modern bioenergy's share of the total energy supply increases from 6.6% in 2020 to 13.1% in 2030 and 18.7% in 2050. In 2014, IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency) projected a doubling of energy produced from biomass in 2030, with a small contribution from traditional bioenergy (6 EJ). The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) argue that bioenergy has a significant climate mitigation potential if done right, and most of the IPCC's mitigation pathways include substantial contributions from bioenergy in 2050 (average at 200 EJ.) Some researchers criticize the use of bioenergy with low emission savings, high initial carbon intensities and/or long waiting times before positive climate impacts materialize. The raw material feedstocks with the largest potential in the future is lignocellulosic (non-edible) biomass (for instance coppices or perennial energy crops), agricultural residues, and biological waste. These feedstocks also have the shortest delay before producing climate benefits. Heat production is normally more "climate friendly" than electricity production, since the conversion from chemical to heat energy is more efficient than the conversion from chemical to electrical energy. Heat from biomass combustion is also harder to replace with heat from alternative renewable energy sources; these are either more costly or constrained by the maximum temperature of the steam they can deliver. Solid biofuel is likely more climate friendly than liquid biofuel, since the production of solid biofuel is more energy efficient. Biogas plants can provide dispatchable electricity generation, and heat when needed. A common concept is the co-fermentation of energy crops mixed with manure in agriculture. Burning plant-derived releases CO2, but it has still been classified as a renewable energy source in the EU and UN legal frameworks because photosynthesis cycles the CO2 back into new crops. How a fuel is produced, transported and processed has a significant impact on lifecycle emissions. Transporting fuels over long distances and excessive use of nitrogen fertilisers can reduce the emissions savings made by the same fuel compared to natural gas by between 15 and 50 per cent. Renewable biofuels are starting to be used in aviation. (en)
A blockchain is a type of distributed ledger technology (DLT) that consists of growing lists of records, called blocks, that are securely linked together using cryptography. Each block contains a cryptographic hash of the previous block, a timestamp, and transaction data (generally represented as a Merkle tree, where data nodes are represented by leaves). The timestamp proves that the transaction data existed when the block was created. Since each block contains information about the previous block, they effectively form a chain (compare linked list data structure), with each additional block linking to the ones before it. Consequently, blockchain transactions are irreversible in that, once they are recorded, the data in any given block cannot be altered retroactively without altering all subsequent blocks. Blockchains are typically managed by a peer-to-peer (P2P) computer network for use as a public distributed ledger, where nodes collectively adhere to a consensus algorithm protocol to add and validate new transaction blocks. Although blockchain records are not unalterable, since blockchain forks are possible, blockchains may be considered secure by design and exemplify a distributed computing system with high Byzantine fault tolerance. A blockchain was created by a person (or group of people) using the name (or pseudonym) Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008 to serve as the public distributed ledger for bitcoin cryptocurrency transactions, based on previous work by Stuart Haber, W. Scott Stornetta, and Dave Bayer. The implementation of the blockchain within bitcoin made it the first digital currency to solve the double-spending problem without the need of a trusted authority or central server. The bitcoin design has inspired other applications and blockchains that are readable by the public and are widely used by cryptocurrencies. The blockchain may be considered a type of payment rail. Private blockchains have been proposed for business use. Computerworld called the marketing of such privatized blockchains without a proper security model "snake oil"; however, others have argued that permissioned blockchains, if carefully designed, may be more decentralized and therefore more secure in practice than permissionless ones. (en)
Une bourse, au sens économique et financier, est une institution, privée ou publique, qui permet de découvrir et d'afficher le prix d'actifs standardisés et d'en faciliter (d'apparier) les échanges dans des conditions de sécurité satisfaisante pour l'acheteur et le vendeur. Une bourse abrite un marché réglementé et organisé dont la présence est permanente, contrairement à un marché (de campagne par exemple) dont la présence est éphémère, mais dont les fonctions sont voisines. Elle s'insère dans une chaîne logistique complexe de passation des ordres, de clearing des ordres et de livraison des titres (ou autres). La bourse est une institution de l'économie de marché, car elle assure la formation continue des prix par confrontation de l'offre et de la demande. Elle est généralement surveillée par un régulateur qui assure sa neutralité de fonctionnement (équité de traitement des investisseurs), la bonne circulation des informations (communiqués) et la police du marché si nécessaire (notifications, enquêtes, sanctions). Les bourses étaient autrefois abritées dans des bâtiments spéciaux destinés à accueillir les opérateurs qui en assuraient le fonctionnement : courtiers, agents de change (aujourd'hui disparus), et autres membres. Ces membres assuraient les cotations à la bourse par divers systèmes de formation des prix tels que criée, casiers ou boites. Les bourses se sont progressivement dématérialisées et ont migré sur des réseaux informatiques qui assurent les mêmes fonctions, sans qu'une présence physique des opérateurs en un même lieu soit nécessaire. Des opérateurs purement logiciels sont apparus dans les dernières décennies. On distingue :
* les bourses des valeurs : actions, obligations, produits dérivés (options, bons de souscription), OPCVM ;
* les bourses de matières premières (métaux, hydrocarbures, céréales, etc.) ou de biens de consommation en gros (diamants, fleurs, etc.). L'or et l'argent ont un statut un peu particulier « compartiment » qui est dû à leur ancienne fonction monétaire ;
* les bourses spécialisées dans les contrats à terme, futures (matière première par exemple pétrole, produits finis, par exemple jus d'orange, produits financiers, par exemple indice boursier), comme le LIFFE. Employé seul dans un contexte financier, le terme « bourse » réfère le plus souvent à une bourse de valeurs, de matières premières ou de produits financiers spécialisés (de type futures). (fr) , An exchange, bourse (/bʊərs/), trading exchange or trading venue is an organized market where (especially) tradable securities, commodities, foreign exchange, futures, and options contracts are bought and sold. (en) +
Un brevet est un titre de propriété industrielle qui confère à son titulaire une exclusivité d'exploitation de l'invention brevetée à compter, en principe, de la date de dépôt et pour une durée maximale de 20 ans. Un droit de brevet n'est pas un droit d'exploitation, c'est-à-dire autorisant l'exploitation de l'invention brevetée. En effet, le droit d’exploitation peut être soumis à un autre formalisme tel que l'obtention d'une autorisation de mise sur le marché, une certification, etc. Certains États peuvent au moment de l'inscription fournir un « brevet provisoire » et accorder un « délai de grâce » qui évite la nullité du brevet pour un inventeur ayant exposé son invention avant le dépôt de brevet, dans un cadre non confidentiel. Ceci présente l'avantage de permettre la diffusion rapide des connaissances techniques tout en réservant l'exploitation industrielle de l'invention, ainsi que quelques inconvénients[Lesquels ?]. Selon les pays c'est le premier « inventeur » ou le premier « déposant » (en Europe) qui a priorité pour le brevet. Le brevet n'est valable que sur un territoire déterminé, pour un État déterminé. Il est possible de déposer une demande de brevet auprès d'un État (auprès de l'USPTO pour les États-Unis, de l'INPI pour la France, du JPO pour le Japon…), ou auprès d'un groupe de pays (auprès de l'Office européen des brevets pour 39 pays européens, dépôt d'une demande internationale de brevet pour les 142 pays signataires du Traité de coopération sur les brevets, dite demande PCT). À la délivrance, le demandeur recevra autant de brevets nationaux que d'États où une protection est recherchée. En contrepartie du droit, pour le titulaire du brevet, d'interdire à autrui de reproduire l'invention sans son autorisation, l'invention doit être divulguée dans le texte du brevet de manière pleine et entière de manière que quiconque puisse la reproduire. Dans la majorité des cas, les demandes de brevet sont automatiquement publiées à l'issue d'une période de 18 mois à compter de la date de priorité revendiquée la plus ancienne. En Europe, des brevets sur des dispositifs médicaux, des produits pharmaceutiques ou phytosanitaires peuvent être prolongés de cinq ans au plus sous réserve de l'obtention d'un certificat complémentaire de protection (règlement CE 1768/92). En décembre 2020, dans le cadre de la pandémie de Covid-19, l'Organisation mondiale du commerce débat exceptionnellement sur la libération des brevets sur les vaccins. (fr) , A patent is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the legal right to exclude others from making, using, or selling an invention for a limited period of time in exchange for publishing an enabling disclosure of the invention. In most countries, patent rights fall under private law and the patent holder must sue someone infringing the patent in order to enforce their rights. In some industries patents are an essential form of competitive advantage; in others they are irrelevant. The procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the scope of protection that is being sought. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right. Under the World Trade Organization's (WTO) TRIPS Agreement, patents should be available in WTO member states for any invention, in all fields of technology, provided they are new, involve an inventive step, and are capable of industrial application. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, also among WTO member states. TRIPS also provides that the term of protection available should be a minimum of twenty years. (en) +
Pour un agent économique (à savoir un individu, un ménage, une association, une entreprise, un État...) ou une entité (à savoir un équipement, un service, un établissement, un projet, une mission, une fonction...) le budget est un document récapitulatif des recettes et des dépenses prévisionnelles déterminées et chiffrées pour un exercice comptable à venir (généralement l'année). La démarche budgétaire peut concerner le domaine de la gestion privée ou publique. Le présent article ne traite que des concepts et des pratiques ayant trait à la gestion privée (voir par ailleurs les articles détaillés : le Budget de l'État ou le Budget de l'État français ou le Budget de l'Union européenne). (fr) +, A budget is a calculation plan, usually but not always financial, for a defined period, often one year or a month. A budget may include anticipated sales volumes and revenues, resource quantities including time, costs and expenses, environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas emissions, other impacts, assets, liabilities and cash flows. Companies, governments, families, and other organizations use budgets to express strategic plans of activities in measurable terms. A budget expresses intended expenditures along with proposals for how to meet them with resources. A budget may express a surplus, providing resources for use at a future time, or a deficit in which expenditures exceed income or other resources. (en) +
Sumak kawsay is a neologism in Quechua created in the 1990s by socialist-indigenous organizations. Originally created as a political and cultural proposal, Ecuadorian and Bolivian governments later adopted it. The term refers to the implementation of a socialism that moves away from Western socialist theory and instead embraces the ancestral, communitarian knowledge and lifestyle of Quechua people. In Ecuador, it has been translated as buen vivir or "good living", although experts in the Quechua language agree that a more precise translation would be "the plentiful life". In Bolivia, the original word in Aimaran is suma qamaña which has been translated as vivir bien or living well. In the original Quechua phrase, sumak refers to the ideal and beautiful fulfillment of the planet, and kawsay means "life," a life with dignity, plenitude, balance, and harmony. Similar ideas exist in other indigenous communities, such as the Mapuche (Chile), the Guaraní (Bolivia and Paraguay), the Achuar (Ecuadorian Amazon), the Guna (Panamá), etc. Mayan Tsotsil and Tseltal peoples pursue Lekil Kuxlejal (a fair-dignified life), which is considered equivalent to Buen Vivir and has influenced the development Neozapatismo. Since the 1990s, sumak kawsay has grown into a political project that aims to achieve collective wellbeing, social responsibility in how people relate to nature, and a halt to endless capital accumulation. This final aspect makes the project an alternative to traditional development. Buen vivir proposes the collective realization of a harmonious and balanced life based on ethical values, in place of a development model that views human beings as an economic resource. Indigenous movements in Ecuador and Bolivia, along with intellectuals, initially used the concept to define an alternative paradigm to capitalist development with cosmological, holistic, and political dimensions. The 2008 Constitution of Ecuador incorporated the concept of the rights of nature, as did the 2009 Constitution of Bolivia. Diverse theorists, such as economists Alberto Acosta and Magdalena León, say that sumak kawsay is not about a finished and completely structured theory, but rather an unfinished social proposal that can be improved. (en)
, A business improvement district (BID) is a defined area within which businesses are required to pay an additional tax (or levy) in order to fund projects within the district's boundaries. The BID is often funded primarily through the levy but can also draw on other public and private funding streams. BIDs may go by other names, such as business improvement area (BIA), business revitalization zone (BRZ), community improvement district (CID), special services area (SSA), or special improvement district (SID). These districts typically fund services which are perceived by some businesses as being inadequately performed by government with its existing tax revenues, such as cleaning streets, providing security, making capital improvements, construction of pedestrian and streetscape enhancements, and marketing the area. The services provided by BIDs are supplemental to those already provided by the municipality. The revenue derives from a tax assessment on commercial property owners, and in some cases, residential property owners. (en) +
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Un camp de réfugiés est un camp temporaire construit par des gouvernements ou des ONG (telles que la Croix-Rouge) pour recevoir des réfugiés. C'est un espace humanitaire artificiel, fondé sur un système urbain pour une durée limitée à la suite d'une catastrophe naturelle ou d'une crise politique. Certains camps peuvent accueillir jusqu'à plusieurs milliers de personnes. (fr) +, A refugee camp is a temporary settlement built to receive refugees and people in refugee-like situations. Refugee camps usually accommodate displaced people who have fled their home country, but camps are also made for internally displaced people. Usually, refugees seek asylum after they have escaped war in their home countries, but some camps also house environmental and economic migrants. Camps with over a hundred thousand people are common, but as of 2012, the average-sized camp housed around 11,400. They are usually built and run by a government, the United Nations, international organizations (such as the International Committee of the Red Cross), or non-governmental organization. Unofficial refugee camps, such as Idomeni in Greece or the Calais jungle in France, are where refugees are largely left without support of governments or international organizations. Refugee camps generally develop in an impromptu fashion with the aim of meeting basic human needs for only a short time. Facilities that make a camp look or feel more permanent are often prohibited by host country governments. If the return of refugees is prevented (often by civil war), a humanitarian crisis can result or continue. According to UNHCR, most refugees worldwide do not live in refugee camps. At the end of 2015, some 67% of refugees around the world lived in individual, private accommodations. This can be partly explained by the high number of Syrian refugees renting apartments in urban agglomerations across the Middle East. Worldwide, slightly over a quarter (25.4%) of refugees were reported to be living in managed camps. At the end of 2015, about 56% of the total refugee population in rural locations resided in a managed camp, compared to the 2% who resided in individual accommodation. In urban locations, the overwhelming majority (99%) of refugees lived in individual accommodations, compared with less than 1% who lived in a managed camp. A small percentage of refugees also live in collective centers, transit camps, and self-settled camps. Despite 74% of refugees being in urban areas, the service delivery model of international humanitarian aid agencies remains focused on the establishment and operation of refugee camps. (en)
Empowerment is the degree of autonomy and self-determination in people and in communities. This enables them to represent their interests in a responsible and self-determined way, acting on their own authority. It is the process of becoming stronger and more confident, especially in controlling one's life and claiming one's rights. Empowerment as action refers both to the process of self-empowerment and to professional support of people, which enables them to overcome their sense of powerlessness and lack of influence, and to recognize and use their resources. As a term, empowerment originates from American community psychology and is associated with the social scientist Julian Rappaport (1981). However, the roots of empowerment theory extend further into history and are linked to Marxist sociological theory. These sociological ideas have continued to be developed and refined through Neo-Marxist Theory (also known as Critical Theory). In social work, empowerment forms a practical approach of resource-oriented intervention. In the field of citizenship education and democratic education, empowerment is seen as a tool to increase the responsibility of the citizen. Empowerment is a key concept in the discourse on promoting civic engagement. Empowerment as a concept, which is characterized by a move away from a deficit-oriented towards a more strength-oriented perception, can increasingly be found in management concepts, as well as in the areas of continuing education and self-help. (en) +
Le capitalisme désigne un système économique caractérisé par la propriété privée des moyens de production. Par extension, le terme peut également désigner l'organisation sociale induite par ce système ou un système fondé sur l'accumulation du capital productif guidée par la recherche du profit. Les économistes, les sociologues et les historiens ont adopté des perspectives différentes dans leurs analyses du capitalisme et en ont reconnu diverses formes dans la pratique dont le capitalisme de laissez-faire, l'économie sociale de marché ou le capitalisme d'État. Les différentes formes de capitalisme présentent des degrés variables de marché, de propriété privée, d'obstacles à la libre concurrence et d'implication de l'État à travers les politiques sociales et sont du ressort des politiques et de la loi. La plupart des économies capitalistes existantes sont des économies mixtes, qui combinent des éléments de libre marché avec l'intervention de l'État et, dans certains cas, la planification économique. Le système capitaliste a connu une diffusion croissante depuis la révolution industrielle et est actuellement le système économique de la plupart des pays de la planète suite à l'échec du modèle marxiste avec la chute du Mur de Berlin. Il lui est fait de nombreuses critiques concernant notamment la morale, la validité des théories économiques, le rôle de l'État, le pouvoir du capitaliste, le partage de la valeur ajoutée et du profit, l'organisation du travail ou encore les relations internationales. En outre, l'implication du capitalisme dans de grandes questions sociétales, comme l'impérialisme ou les dégâts fait à l'environnement, font l'objet de controverses. Pour cette raison, le mot capitalisme est généralement employé avec une connotation critique ou une volonté de s'opposer à ce système, notamment par les tenants du marxisme et de l'anarchisme. (fr) +, Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price system, private property, property rights recognition, voluntary exchange, and wage labor. In a market economy, decision-making and investments are determined by owners of wealth, property, or ability to maneuver capital or production ability in capital and financial markets—whereas prices and the distribution of goods and services are mainly determined by competition in goods and services markets. Economists, historians, political economists and sociologists have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire or free-market capitalism, anarcho-capitalism, state capitalism and welfare capitalism. Different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership, obstacles to free competition and state-sanctioned social policies. The degree of competition in markets and the role of intervention and regulation as well as the scope of state ownership vary across different models of capitalism. The extent to which different markets are free and the rules defining private property are matters of politics and policy. Most of the existing capitalist economies are mixed economies that combine elements of free markets with state intervention and in some cases economic planning. Market economies have existed under many forms of government and in many different times, places and cultures. Modern capitalist societies developed in Western Europe in a process that led to the Industrial Revolution. Capitalist systems with varying degrees of direct government intervention have since become dominant in the Western world and continue to spread. Economic growth is a characteristic tendency of capitalist economies. (en) +
Platform capitalism refers to the activities of companies such as Google, Facebook, Apple, Microsoft, Uber, Airbnb and others to operate as platforms. In this business model both hardware and software are used as a foundation (platform) for other actors to conduct their own business. Platform capitalism is either heralded as beneficial or denounced as detrimental by various authors. The trends identified in platform capitalism have similarities with those described under the heading of surveillance capitalism. The possible effect of platform capitalism on open science has been discussed. Platform capitalism has been contrasted with platform cooperativism. Companies that try to focus on fairness and sharing, instead of just profit motive, are described as cooperatives, whereas more traditional and common companies that focus solely on profit, like Airbnb and Uber, are platform capitalists (or cooperativist platforms vs capitalist platforms). In turn, projects like Wikipedia, which rely on unpaid labor of volunteers, can be classified as commons-based peer-production initiatives. (en) +
Les capitaux propres, très proches des fonds propres, sont, en comptabilité, les ressources (passif) d'une société qui appartiennent à ses actionnaires, par opposition aux dettes vis-à-vis des fournisseurs ou des banques par exemple. Ils se composent du capital social, des réserves et du report à nouveau (correspondant aux bénéfices qui n'ont pas été redistribués en dividende), et du résultat net de l'exercice fiscal. Les fonds propres sont un peu plus larges que les capitaux propres puisque : fonds propres = capitaux propres + émissions de titres participatifs + avances conditionnées + droits du concédant. Il est vrai toutefois que pour la plupart des entreprises, les capitaux propres ont une valeur très proche des fonds propres. Cette notion est parfois étendue aux « quasi-fonds propres », qui regroupent des ressources stables n'ayant pas le caractère de capitaux propres, telles que les comptes courants d'associés, les emprunts participatifs ou les obligations convertibles. (fr) +, In finance, equity is ownership of assets that may have debts or other liabilities attached to them. Equity is measured for accounting purposes by subtracting liabilities from the value of the assets. For example, if someone owns a car worth $24,000 and owes $10,000 on the loan used to buy the car, the difference of $14,000 is equity. Equity can apply to a single asset, such as a car or house, or to an entire business. A business that needs to start up or expand its operations can sell its equity in order to raise cash that does not have to be repaid on a set schedule. When liabilities attached to an asset exceed its value, the difference is called a deficit and the asset is informally said to be "underwater" or "upside-down". In government finance or other non-profit settings, equity is known as "net position" or "net assets". (en) +
La cartographie est la réalisation et l'étude des cartes géographiques et géologiques. Elle est très dépendante de la géodésie, science qui s'efforce de décrire, mesurer et rendre compte de la forme et des dimensions de la Terre. Le principe majeur de la cartographie est la représentation de données sur un support réduit représentant un espace généralement tenu pour réel. L'objectif de la carte, c'est une représentation concise et efficace, la simplification de phénomènes complexes (politiques, économiques, sociaux, etc.) à l'œuvre sur l'espace représenté afin de permettre une compréhension rapide et pertinente. La création de carte débute avec la définition du projet cartographique. La collecte d'informations est en deux parties : 1.
* fond de carte : relevé des contours et de l'espace support à représenter ; 2.
* relevé des données statistiques à représenter sur cet espace. Vient ensuite un travail de sélection des informations, de conception graphique (icônes, styles), puis d'assemblage (création de la carte), et de renseignement de la carte (légende, échelle, rose des vents). La création cartographique est également étudiée, ses méthodes commentées. Des analyses mathématiques comparent par exemple les distorsions des projections cartographiques, tandis que les théories de l'information graphique donnent des conseils quant au style nécessaire à un message graphique clair. Étant le fruit de sélections humaines, la carte peut omettre, nier, tromper. L' des cartes est ici intéressante, puisqu'elle révèle les biais.Les acteurs principaux de la cartographie étaient traditionnellement les explorateurs et les cartographes, afin de définir l'espace des États, et les espaces des territoires explorés. Aujourd'hui, la cartographie moderne est transdisciplinaire et s'applique à quantité de sciences : la géologie pour les géologues, la biologie pour les biologistes, l'urbanisme pour les architectes, la sociologie pour les sociologues… nécessitent une collaboration entre cartographes, experts, et analystes de données. Les données numériques et satellitaires font de l'informatique et de l'informaticien de nouveaux partenaires-clefs, tandis que les netizens rejoignent depuis peu le groupe avec la et la cartographie d'information. Au XXIe siècle, rares sont les cartographes « purs ». Effectivement, la géographie et l'informatique sont couplées : cet ensemble forme la géomatique. Les géomaticiens sont des professionnels capables de réaliser de la cartographie mais aussi de gérer des systèmes d'information (données, bases de données, architectures informatiques…), spécifiquement appelés des SIG. (fr) , Cartography (/kɑːrˈtɒɡrəfi/; from Ancient Greek: χάρτης chartēs, "papyrus, sheet of paper, map"; and γράφειν graphein, "write") is the study and practice of making and using maps. Combining science, aesthetics and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality (or an imagined reality) can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively. The fundamental objectives of traditional cartography are to:
* Set the map's agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing. Traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as toponyms or political boundaries.
* Represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections.
* Eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the map's purpose. This is the concern of generalization.
* Reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization.
* Orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of . Modern cartography constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems (GIS) and geographic information science (GISc). (en) +
, In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The current rise in global average temperature is more rapid than previous changes, and is primarily caused by humans burning fossil fuels. Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices increase greenhouse gases, notably carbon dioxide and methane. Greenhouse gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight. Larger amounts of these gases trap more heat in Earth's lower atmosphere, causing global warming. Due to climate change, deserts are expanding, while heat waves and wildfires are becoming more common. Increased warming in the Arctic has contributed to melting permafrost, glacial retreat and sea ice loss. Higher temperatures are also causing more intense storms, droughts, and other weather extremes. Rapid environmental change in mountains, coral reefs, and the Arctic is forcing many species to relocate or become extinct. Even if efforts to minimise future warming are successful, some effects will continue for centuries. These include ocean heating, ocean acidification and sea level rise. Climate change threatens people with food and water scarcity, increased flooding, extreme heat, more disease, and economic loss. Human migration and conflict can also be a result. The World Health Organization (WHO) calls climate change the greatest threat to global health in the 21st century. Communities may adapt to climate change through efforts like coastline protection or expanding access to air conditioning, but some impacts are unavoidable. Poorer countries are responsible for a small share of global emissions, yet they have the least ability to adapt and are most vulnerable to climate change. Many climate change impacts are already felt at the current 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) level of warming. Additional warming will increase these impacts and may trigger tipping points, such as the melting of the Greenland ice sheet. Under the 2015 Paris Agreement, nations collectively agreed to keep warming "well under 2 °C". However, with pledges made under the Agreement, global warming would still reach about 2.7 °C (4.9 °F) by the end of the century. Limiting warming to 1.5 °C will require halving emissions by 2030 and achieving net-zero emissions by 2050. Reducing emissions requires generating electricity from low-carbon sources rather than burning fossil fuels. This change includes phasing out coal and natural gas fired power plants, vastly increasing use of wind, solar, and other types of renewable energy, and reducing energy use. Electricity generated from non-carbon-emitting sources will need to replace fossil fuels for powering transportation, heating buildings, and operating industrial facilities. Carbon can also be removed from the atmosphere, for instance by increasing forest cover and by farming with methods that capture carbon in soil. (en)
Les chartes sont des actes juridiques signés par plusieurs acteurs pour définir un objectif et parfois des moyens communs. Les chartes sont de natures variées :
* les chartes royales, par exemple la Grande Charte de Jean sans Terre en 1215, ou la Charte constitutionnelle de 1814 ;
* les chartes de franchise ;
* les chartes de commune. Il existe des chartes :
* de qualité de produit ou de service, de respect des délais
* des chartes concernant les pratiques professionnelles des personnels soignant ou accompagnant des personnes vulnérables (enfants, handicapés, personnes âgées, malades hospitalisés) Les chartes de fondation précisent les conditions de création d'un bâtiment civil (palais par exemple), militaire ou religieux (abbaye par exemple), d'une ville (bastide par exemple), d'une société ou d'une association. (fr) +, A charter is the grant of authority or rights, stating that the granter formally recognizes the prerogative of the recipient to exercise the rights specified. It is implicit that the granter retains superiority (or sovereignty), and that the recipient admits a limited (or inferior) status within the relationship, and it is within that sense that charters were historically granted, and it is that sense which is retained in modern usage of the term. The word entered the English language from the Old French charte, via Latin charta, and ultimately from Greek χάρτης (khartes, meaning "layer of papyrus"). It has come to be synonymous with a document that sets out a grant of rights or privileges. (en) +
La citoyenneté est le fait pour un individu, pour une famille ou pour un groupe, d'être reconnu officiellement comme citoyen, c'est-à-dire membre d'une ville ayant le statut de cité, ou plus générale d'un État. En France en 1789, le mot citoyen a remplacé celui de bourgeois. Il n'y a pas de citoyenneté en général, même si beaucoup de personnalités se sont revendiquées comme citoyens du monde ou cosmopolites. (fr) +, Citizenship is a "relationship between an individual and a state to which the individual owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection". Each state determines the conditions under which it will recognize persons as its citizens, and the conditions under which that status will be withdrawn. Recognition by a state as a citizen generally carries with it recognition of civil, political, and social rights which are not afforded to non-citizens. In general, the basic rights normally regarded as arising from citizenship are the right to a passport, the right to leave and return to the country/ies of citizenship, the right to live in that country, and to work there. Some countries permit their citizens to have multiple citizenships, while others insist on exclusive allegiance. (en) +
Le climat est la distribution statistique des conditions de l'atmosphère terrestre dans une région donnée pendant une période donnée. L'étude du climat est la climatologie. Elle se distingue de la météorologie qui désigne l'étude du temps à court terme et dans des zones ponctuelles. La caractérisation du climat est effectuée à partir de mesures statistiques annuelles et mensuelles sur des données atmosphériques locales : température, pression atmosphérique, précipitations, ensoleillement, humidité, vitesse du vent. Sont également pris en compte leur récurrence ainsi que les phénomènes exceptionnels. Ces analyses permettent de classer les climats des différentes régions du monde selon leurs caractéristiques principales. Le climat a fortement varié au cours de l'histoire de la Terre sous l'influence d’une pluralité de phénomènes astronomiques, géologiques, etc., et plus récemment sous l'effet des activités humaines (réchauffement climatique). (fr) +, Climate is the long-term weather pattern in an area, typically averaged over 30 years. More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation. In a broader sense, climate is the state of the components of the climate system, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere and the interactions between them. The climate of a location is affected by its latitude/longitude, terrain, altitude, land use and nearby water bodies and their currents. Climates can be classified according to the average and typical variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. The most widely used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification. The Thornthwaite system, in use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it. Finally, the Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region. Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates. Paleoclimatologists seek to explain climate variations for all parts of the Earth during any given geologic period, beginning with the time of the Earth's formation. Since very few direct observations of climate were available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables. They include non-biotic evidence—such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores—and biotic evidence—such as tree rings and coral. Climate models are mathematical models of past, present, and future climates. Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from various factors. Recent warming is discussed in global warming, which results in redistributions. For example, "a 3 °C [5 °F] change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300–400 km [190–250 mi] in latitude (in the temperate zone) or 500 m [1,600 ft] in elevation. Therefore, species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones." (en)
La cocréation est une pratique collaborative de développement d'une initiative. Elle met l'accent sur l'exploration et l'interdisciplinarité, implique de nouvelles relations entre une diversité de personnes et utilise un processus créatif pour générer des résultats significatifs. La cocréation consiste, pour une entreprise, à développer des produits ou services en collaboration active avec ses clients et ce, de façon durable. Après une première phase durant laquelle la cocréation a été utilisée comme un outil d’innovation pour les produits et les services, la cocréation se développe aujourd’hui comme vecteur de transformation des entreprises. La cocréation de produit ou service avec le client arrive au deuxième rang des priorités des dirigeants marketing pour la période 2010-2012 selon le baromètre Cegos. (fr) +
Le paritarisme, ou système de gestion paritaire, est un principe consistant en la cogestion d'un organisme par un nombre égal de représentants des employés et des employeurs. On parle alors d'un organisme paritaire. (fr) +, In corporate governance, codetermination (also "copartnership" or "worker participation") is a practice where workers of an enterprise have the right to vote for representatives on the board of directors in a company. It also refers to staff having binding rights in work councils on issues in their workplace. The first laws requiring worker voting rights include the Oxford University Act 1854 and the Port of London Act 1908 in the United Kingdom, the Act on Manufacturing Companies of 1919 in Massachusetts in the United States (although the act's provisions were completely voluntary), and the Supervisory Board Act 1922 (Aufsichtsratgesetz 1922) in Germany, which codified collective agreement from 1918. Most countries with codetermination laws have single-tier board of directors in their corporate law (such as Sweden, France or the Netherlands), while a number in central Europe (particularly Germany and Austria) have two-tier boards. The threshold of a company's size where co-determination must apply varies between countries: in Denmark it is set at 20 employees, in Germany over 500 (for 1/3 representation) and 2000 (for just under a half), and in France for over 5000 employees. Sweden has had a law of codetermination since 1980. (en) +, La cogestión (inglés: co-determination) es una práctica en la cual los empleados tienen un papel fundamental en la dirección y gestión de la empresa. La palabra es una traducción literal del alemán Mitbestimmung y los derechos generados en una cogestión difieren según el contexto legal. Las primeras leyes sobre cogestión aparecieron en Alemania en el sector del carbón y el acero. Desde 1974, una ley obliga a que toda empresa de más de 500 empleados tenga representación de los trabajadores en los órganos de dirección. (es) +
