Attribut:Résumé DBP
De Remix Biens Communs
Cette propriété est de type Monolingual text.
S
Le squat (de l'anglais to squat, occuper un lieu sans en avoir la permission), désigne l'occupation d'un lieu dans une perspective d'habitation sans l'accord du titulaire légal de ce lieu. Juridiquement qualifié d'« occupation sans droit ni titre », le squat est par définition illégal. Par extension, le squat désigne le lieu ainsi occupé. (fr) +, Squatting is the action of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential, that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use. The United Nations estimated in 2003 that there were one billion slum residents and squatters globally. Squatting occurs worldwide and tends to occur when people who are poor and homeless find empty buildings or land to occupy for housing. It has a long history, broken down by country below. In developing countries and least developed countries, shanty towns often begin as squatted settlements. In African cities such as Lagos much of the population lives in slums. There are pavement dwellers in India and in Hong Kong as well as rooftop slums. Informal settlements in Latin America are known by names such as villa miseria (Argentina), pueblos jóvenes (Peru) and asentamientos irregulares (Guatemala, Uruguay). In Brazil, there are favelas in the major cities and land-based movements. In industrialized countries, there are often residential squats and also political squatting movements, which can be anarchist, autonomist or socialist in nature, for example in the self-managed social centres of Italy or squats in the United States. Oppositional movements from the 1960s and 1970s created freespaces in Denmark or squatting village in the Netherlands, and in England and Wales, there were estimated to be 50,000 squatters in the late 1970s. Each local situation determines the context: in Athens, Greece, there are refugee squats; Germany has social centres; in Spain there are many squats. (en) +, El movimiento okupa es un movimiento social radical que propugna la ocupación de viviendas o locales deshabitados, temporal o permanentemente, con el fin de utilizarlos como vivienda, guarida, tierras de cultivo, lugar de reunión o centros con fines sociales, políticos y culturales, entre otros. El principal motivo es denunciar y al mismo tiempo responder a las dificultades económicas que los activistas consideran que existen para hacer efectivo, a costa del derecho a la propiedad privada, el derecho a la vivienda. El movimiento okupa agrupa gran variedad de ideologías —en ocasiones asociadas a una determinada tribu urbana— que suelen justificar sus acciones como un gesto de protesta política y social contra la especulación y para defender el derecho a la vivienda frente a las dificultades económicas o sociales. El movimiento okupa también suele defender el aprovechamiento de solares, inmuebles y espacios abandonados y su uso público como centros sociales o culturales. La legislación relativa a okupación de espacios varía mucho de un país a otro. En la mayoría de países, los propietarios legales del bien inmueble cuyos bienes resultan usurpados pueden denunciarla como un delito ordinario; mientras que existen países donde puede haber una legislación que tolere condicionadamente la okupación, o donde existen concesiones temporales por parte de los propietarios a cambio del mantenimiento o alquiler del inmueble. En Holanda, por ejemplo, sólo recientemente se ha propuesto castigar esta práctica. (es) +
Surveillance is the monitoring of behavior, many activities, or information for the purpose of information gathering, influencing, managing or directing. This can include observation from a distance by means of electronic equipment, such as closed-circuit television (CCTV), or interception of electronically transmitted information like Internet traffic. It can also include simple technical methods, such as human intelligence gathering and postal interception. Surveillance is used by citizens for protecting their neighborhoods. And by governments for intelligence gathering - including espionage, prevention of crime, the protection of a process, person, group or object, or the investigation of crime. It is also used by criminal organizations to plan and commit crimes, and by businesses to gather intelligence on criminals, their competitors, suppliers or customers. Religious organisations charged with detecting heresy and heterodoxy may also carry out surveillance.Auditors carry out a form of surveillance. A byproduct of surveillance is that it can unjustifiably violate people's privacy and is often criticized by civil liberties activists. Liberal democracies may have laws that seek to restrict governmental and private use of surveillance, whereas authoritarian governments seldom have any domestic restrictions. Espionage is by definition covert and typically illegal according to the rules of the observed party, whereas most types of surveillance are overt and are considered legitimate. International espionage seems to be common among all types of countries. (en) +
Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS), as defined by IFOAM, are "locally focused quality assurance systems. They certify producers based on active participation of stakeholders and are built on a foundation of trust, social networks and knowledge exchange." They represent an alternative to third party certification, especially adapted to local markets and short supply chains. They can also complement third party certification with a private label that brings additional guarantees and transparency. PGS enable the direct participation of producers, consumers and other stakeholders in:
* the choice and definition of the standards
* the development and implementation of certification procedures
* the certification decisions Participatory Guarantee Systems are also referred to as "participatory certification". The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) and the organic movement remain a leader in the concept of PGS at the international level. IFOAM is running a program to recognize PGS in the organic sector. PGS is a tool that can be adopted not only for organic agriculture but is useful in various sectors. (en) +, Les systèmes participatifs de garantie (SPG) sont des systèmes d'assurance-qualité ancrés localement. Ils regroupent des organisations et des fonctionnements qui unissent leurs efforts pour offrir aux consommateurs ou aux usagers une forme alternative de garantie. « Les systèmes participatifs de garantie sont des systèmes d’assurance qualité orientés localement. Ils certifient les producteurs sur la base d’une participation active des acteurs concernés et sont construits sur une base de confiance, de réseaux et d’échanges de connaissances. » (définition IFOAM, 2008). Les Systèmes participatifs de garantie représentent une alternative à la certification par tiers particulièrement adaptés aux marchés locaux et aux filières courtes. La commercialisation se faisait principalement dans les circuits courts (maximum un intermédiaire) comme les marchés locaux, la ferme ou les magasins de proximité. Ils peuvent aussi complémenter la certification par tiers avec un label privé apportant des garanties et une transparence supplémentaires. Les SPG permettent une participation directe des producteurs, des consommateurs et d’autres acteurs dans :
* Le choix et l’élaboration du cahier des charges.
* Le développement et la mise en œuvre des procédures de certification.
* Les décisions de certification. Les SPG sont aussi parfois désignés sous le terme générique de « certification participative ». (fr) +
T
Technology is the application of knowledge to reach practical goals in a specifiable and reproducible way. The word technology may also mean the product of such an endeavor. The use of technology is widely prevalent in medicine, science, industry, communication, transportation, and daily life. Technologies include physical objects like utensils or machines and intangible tools such as software. Many technological advancements have led to societal changes. The earliest known technology is the stone tool, used in the prehistoric era, followed by fire use, which contributed to the growth of the human brain and the development of language in the Ice Age. The invention of the wheel in the Bronze Age enabled wider travel and the creation of more complex machines. Recent technological developments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet have lowered communication barriers and ushered in the knowledge economy. While technology contributes to economic development and human prosperity, it can also have negative impacts like pollution or resource depletion, or cause social harms like technological unemployment caused by automation. As a result, philosophical and political debates have arisen over the role and use of technology, the ethics of technology, and the mitigation of technology's potential downsides. Historical and contemporary movements like neo-Luddism and anarcho-primitivism criticize technology's pervasiveness, while adherents to transhumanism and techno-progressivism actively support technological change, viewing it as emancipatory. Many negative impacts of technology can be mitigated through technological innovations like renewable energy in transportation and industry, genetically modified crops to address soil depletion, and space exploration to mitigate global catastrophic risks. (en) +
Le technosolutionnisme fait référence à la tentative d'utiliser l'ingénierie ou la technologie pour résoudre un problème souvent créé par des technologies antérieures. Certains le définissent comme une « tentative de réparer les dommages causés à une technologie par une modification du système », qui peut impliquer une modification de technologies existantes et/ou une modification de ses procédures d'exploitation ou de maintenance. Les correctifs technologiques sont inévitables dans la technologie moderne. Il a été observé que de nombreuses technologies, bien qu'inventées et développées pour résoudre certains problèmes perçus, créent souvent d'autres problèmes dans le processus, appelés externalités . Le technosolutionnisme est l'idée que tous les problèmes peuvent trouver des solutions dans des technologies meilleures et nouvelles. Le terme est maintenant utilisé comme une expression condescendante pour décrire des solutions bon marché et rapides en utilisant des technologies inappropriées ; ces correctifs créent souvent plus de problèmes qu'ils n'en résolvent, ou donnent le sentiment qu'ils ont résolu le problème. (fr) +, A technological fix, technical fix, technological shortcut or (techno-)solutionism refers to attempts to use engineering or technology to solve a problem (often created by earlier technological interventions). Some references define technological fix as an "attempt to repair the harm of a technology by modification of the system", that might involve modification of the machine and/or modification of the procedures for operating and maintaining it. Technological fixes are inevitable in modern technology. It has been observed that many technologies, although invented and developed to solve certain perceived problems, often create other problems in the process, known as externalities. In other words, there would be modification of the basic hardware, modification of techniques and procedures, or both. The technological fix is the idea that all problems can find solutions in better and new technologies. It now is used as a dismissive phrase to describe cheap, quick fixes by using inappropriate technologies; these fixes often create more problems than they solve, or give people a sense that they have solved the problem. (en) +
Tourism is travel for pleasure or business; also the theory and practice of touring, the business of attracting, accommodating, and entertaining tourists, and the business of operating tours. The World Tourism Organization defines tourism more generally, in terms which go "beyond the common perception of tourism as being limited to holiday activity only", as people "travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure and not less than 24 hours, business and other purposes". Tourism can be domestic (within the traveller's own country) or international, and international tourism has both incoming and outgoing implications on a country's balance of payments. Tourism numbers declined as a result of a strong economic slowdown (the late-2000s recession) between the second half of 2008 and the end of 2009, and in consequence of the outbreak of the 2009 H1N1 influenza virus, but slowly recovered until the COVID-19 pandemic put an abrupt end to the growth. The United Nations World Tourism Organization estimated that global international tourist arrivals might decrease by 58% to 78% in 2020, leading to a potential loss of US$0.9–1.2 trillion in international tourism receipts. Globally, international tourism receipts (the travel item in balance of payments) grew to US$1.03 trillion (€740 billion) in 2005, corresponding to an increase in real terms of 3.8% from 2010. International tourist arrivals surpassed the milestone of 1 billion tourists globally for the first time in 2012, emerging source markets such as China, Russia, and Brazil had significantly increased their spending over the previous decade. Global tourism accounts for c. 8% of global greenhouse-gas emissions. Emissions as well as other significant environmental and social impacts are not always beneficial to local communities and their economies. For this reason, many tourist development organizations have begun to focus on sustainable tourism to mitigate the negative effects caused by the growing impact of tourism. The United Nations World Tourism Organization emphasized these practices by promoting tourism as part of the Sustainable Development Goals, through programs like the International Year for Sustainable Tourism for Development in 2017, and programs like focusing on how SDG 8, SDG 12 and SDG 14 implicate tourism in creating a sustainable economy. Tourism has reached new dimensions with the emerging industry of space tourism as well as the current industry with cruise ships, there are many different ways of tourism. Another potential new tourism industry is virtual tourism. (en)
In economics and in an ecological context, the tragedy of the commons is a situation in which individual users, who have open access to a resource unhampered by shared social structures or formal rules that govern access and use, act independently according to their own self-interest and, contrary to the common good of all users, cause depletion of the resource through their uncoordinated action in case there are too many users related to the available resources. Central element of the concept originated in an essay written in 1833 by the British economist William Forster Lloyd, who used a hypothetical example of the effects of unregulated grazing on common land, also known as "the commons" (in Anglo-Saxon law) in Great Britain and Ireland. In embryonic form the idea can also be found at Aristotle: "That which is common to the greatest number gets the least amount of care. Men pay most attention to what is their own: they care less for what is common." The theory became widely known as the "tragedy of the commons" after an essay with this title was published in Science written by Garrett Hardin in 1968. It became one of the most cited academic papers ever published and also one of the most heavily criticized, particularly by anthropologists and historians. Hardin, who wrote a total of 350 articles and 27 books, describes in this early essay that common use will only work reasonably satisfactorily as long as the number of man and beast stay well below the carrying capacity of the land. The availability of resources and the amount of people depending on it should therefor be kept in balance. As a punch-line in the article he writes that a freedom to breed is intolerable. As a result of discussions carried out in the decade after publication, Hardin in a talk in the early 80s suggested a better wording of the central idea: "Under conditions of overpopulation, freedom in an unmanaged commons brings ruin to all." In 1991, faced with evidence of historical and existing commons, Hardin retracted his original thesis and wrote "The Tragedy of the 'Unmanaged' Commons". Critical scholars note that although taken as a hypothetical example by Lloyd, the historical demise of the commons of Britain and Europe resulted not from misuse of long-held rights of usage by the commoners, but from the commons' owners enclosing and appropriating the land, abrogating the commoners' rights. Although open-access resource systems may collapse due to overuse (such as in overfishing), many examples have existed and still do exist where members of a community with regulated access to a common resource co-operate to exploit those resources prudently without collapse, or even creating "perfect order". Elinor Ostrom was awarded the 2009 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for demonstrating this concept in her book , which included examples of how local communities were able to do this without top-down regulations or privatization. On the other hand, Dieter Helm argues that these examples are context-specific and the tragedy of the commons "is not generally solved this way. If it were, the destruction of nature would not have occurred." In a modern global economic context, "commons" is taken to mean any open-access and unregulated resource such as the atmosphere, oceans, rivers, ocean fish stocks, or even an office refrigerator. In an anglo-saxon legal context the concept of the commons derive from a centuries old principle that not all land can be in private hands, but certain types of goods should only belong to the society. Here commons is a type of property that is neither private nor public, but rather held jointly by the members of a community in the interest of the community, who govern access and use through social structures, traditions, or formal rules. In environmental science, the "tragedy of the commons" is often cited in connection with sustainable development, meshing economic growth and environmental protection, as well as in the debate over global warming. It has also been used in analyzing behavior in the fields of economics, evolutionary psychology, anthropology, game theory, politics, taxation, and sociology. (en)
Le post-capitalisme est un concept qui concerne plusieurs propositions visant à créer un nouveau système économique ayant pour ambition de remplacer le capitalisme. Selon certains et certaines théories d'évolution sociale, une société post-capitaliste pourrait naître d'une obsolescence spontanée du capitalisme. D'autres proposent des modèles visant à remplacer intentionnellement le capitalisme. Voir à ce propos les concepts de réformisme et d'utopie technologique. Différents penseurs suggèrent qu'un travail actif doit être entrepris pour construire un monde post-capitaliste avant que la société capitaliste ne s'effondre. Un changement graduel de la société est pour certains plus favorable qu'un choc. (fr) +, , Post-capitalism is a state in which the economic systems of the world can no longer be described as forms of capitalism. Various individuals and political ideologies have speculated on what would define such a world. According to classical Marxist and social evolutionary theories, post-capitalist societies may come about as a result of spontaneous evolution as capitalism becomes obsolete. Others propose models to intentionally replace capitalism. The most notable among them are socialism, anarchism, and degrowth. (en) +
L'économie du travail est une branche de l'économie appliquée à l'analyse du marché du travail. (fr) +, Labour economics, or labor economics, seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for wage labour. Labour is a commodity that is supplied by labourers, usually in exchange for a wage paid by demanding firms. Because these labourers exist as parts of a social, institutional, or political system, labour economics must also account for social, cultural and political variables. Labour markets or job markets function through the interaction of workers and employers. Labour economics looks at the suppliers of labour services (workers) and the demanders of labour services (employers), and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income. These patterns exist because each individual in the market is presumed to make rational choices based on the information that they know regarding wage, desire to provide labour, and desire for leisure. Labour markets are normally geographically bounded, but the rise of the internet has brought about a 'planetary labour market' in some sectors. Labour is a measure of the work done by human beings. It is conventionally contrasted with other factors of production, such as land and capital. Some theories focus on human capital, or entrepreneurship, (which refers to the skills that workers possess and not necessarily the actual work that they produce). Labour is unique to study because it is a special type of good that cannot be separated from the owner (i.e. the work cannot be separated from the person who does it). A labour market is also different from other markets in that workers are the suppliers and firms are the demanders. (en) +
A sidewalk (North American English), pavement (British English), footpath in Australia, India, New Zealand and Ireland, or footway, is a path along the side of a street, highway, terminals. Usually constructed of concrete, pavers, brick, stone, or asphalt, it is designed for pedestrians. A sidewalk is normally higher than the roadway, and separated from it by a kerb (spelled "curb" in North America). There may also be a planted strip between the sidewalk and the roadway and between the roadway and the adjacent land. In some places, the same term may also be used for a paved path, trail or footpath that is not next to a road, for example, a path through a park. (en) +
U
The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of 27 member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of 4,233,255.3 km2 (1,634,469.0 sq mi) and an estimated total population of about 447 million. The EU has often been described as a sui generis political entity (without precedent or comparison) combining the characteristics of both a federation and a confederation. Containing 5.8 per cent of the world population in 2020, the EU generated a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of around US$17.1 trillion in 2021, constituting approximately 18 per cent of global nominal GDP. Additionally, all EU states have a very high Human Development Index according to the United Nations Development Programme. Its cornerstone, the Customs Union, paved the way to establishing an internal single market based on standardised legal framework and legislation that applies in all member states in those matters, and only those matters, where the states have agreed to act as one. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market; enact legislation in justice and home affairs; and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development. Passport controls have been abolished for travel within the Schengen Area. The eurozone is a group composed of the 19 EU member states that have fully implemented the economic and monetary union and use the euro currency. Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the union has developed a role in external relations and defence. It maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7 and the G20. Due to its global influence, the European Union has been described by some scholars as an emerging superpower. The union was established along with its citizenship when the Maastricht Treaty came into force in 1993, and was subsequently incorporated as an international law juridical person upon entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009, but its beginnings may be traced to its earliest predecessors incorporated primarily by a group of founding states known as the Inner Six (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany) at the start of modern institutionalised European integration in 1948 and onwards, namely to the Western Union (WU, 1954 renamed Western European Union, WEU), the International Authority for the Ruhr (IAR), the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the European Economic Community (EEC, 1993 renamed European Community, EC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), established, respectively, by the 1948 Treaty of Brussels, the 1948 London Six-Power Conference, the 1951 Treaty of Paris, the 1957 Treaty of Rome and the 1957 Euratom Treaty. These increasingly amalgamated bodies later known collectively as the European Communities have grown since, along with their legal successor, the EU, both in size through accessions of further 21 states as well as in power through acquisitions of various policy areas to their remit by the virtue of the abovementioned treaties, as well as numerous other ones, such as the Modified Brussels Treaty, the Merger Treaty, the Single European Act, the Treaty of Amsterdam and the Treaty of Nice. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Although the United Kingdom became the only member state to leave the EU in 2020, several other countries are aspiring or negotiating to join it. (en)
Une université est une institution d'enseignement supérieur, d'étude et de recherche, constituée par la réunion de divers établissements nommés suivant les traditions « collèges », « facultés », « instituts », « départements », « centres », « sections », « unités » ou écoles spécifiques, mais aussi bibliothèque ou atelier, médiathèque ou musée, etc. formant un ensemble administratif cohérent avec un statut de droit défini, public, privé ou éventuellement mixte. Sous cette égide légale et administrative sont ainsi rassemblées ou monopolisées la production (recherche scientifique), la conservation (publications et bibliothèques) et la transmission (études supérieures) de différents champs choisis d'études et de connaissance. Le mot universitas attesté entre 1214 et 1218 en latin médiéval, dans la pratique de juristes, désigne une communauté, une assemblée ou une corporation, ici, de maîtres et/ou d'élèves universitas magistrorum et scolarium, il est emprunté au vocabulaire des organisations marchandes, en particulier des guildes de commerce et corporations régulant des activités de services marchands. Ces corporations universitaires spécifiques ne caractérisent les premières et rares concentrations d'écoles d'enseignement supérieur de l'Europe méridionale et occidentale qu'à partir de la fin du premier tiers du XIIIe siècle. Il s'agit d'un statut qui permet de faire face aux autorités de l'école ecclésiastique, aux bourgeois de la ville réunis en assemblées ou en communes, voire au besoin à l'autoritarisme régalien ou papal. L'entrée à l'université est généralement restreinte à ceux qui ont préalablement un diplôme d'enseignement secondaire. Le nombre d'étudiants dans les universités du monde est monté en flèche pendant tout le XXe siècle, spécialement depuis la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Aujourd'hui un bon fonctionnement des universités et plus généralement de l'enseignement supérieur est considéré comme un atout économique. Aussi, les grands pays européens, pour soutenir la compétition internationale, se sont lancés depuis une dizaine d'années dans un mouvement de réflexion et de réforme de leurs universités. (fr) , A university (from Latin universitas 'a whole') is an institution of higher (or tertiary) education and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines. Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs. In the United States, the designation is reserved for colleges that have a graduate school. The word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means "community of teachers and scholars". The first universities were created in Europe by Catholic Church monks. The University of Bologna (Università di Bologna), founded in 1088, is the first university in the sense of:
* Being a high degree-awarding institute.
* Having independence from the ecclesiastic schools, although conducted by both clergy and non-clergy.
* Using the word universitas (which was coined at its foundation).
* Issuing secular and non-secular degrees: grammar, rhetoric, logic, theology, canon law, notarial law. (en) +
Urban resilience has conventionally been defined as the "measurable ability of any urban system, with its inhabitants, to maintain continuity through all shocks and stresses, while positively adapting and transforming towards sustainability". Therefore, a resilient city is one that assesses, plans and acts to prepare for and respond to hazards - natural and human-made, sudden and slow-onset, expected and unexpected. Resilient Cities are better positioned to protect and enhance people's lives, secure development gains, foster an investible environment, and drive positive change. Academic discussion of urban resilience has focused primarily on three distinct threats; climate change, natural disasters, and terrorism. Resilience to these threats has been discussed in the context of non-physical, as well as, physical aspects of urban planning and design. Accordingly, resilience strategies have tended to be conceived of in terms of counter-terrorism, other disasters (earthquakes, wildfires, tsunamis, coastal flooding, solar flares, etc.), and infrastructure adoption of sustainable energy. More recently, there has been an increasing attention to genealogies of urban resilience and the capability of urban systems to adapt to changing conditions. This branch of resilience theory builds on a notion of cities as highly complex adaptive systems. The implication of this insight is to move urban planning away from conventional approaches based in geometric plans to an approach informed by network science that involves less interference in the functioning of cities. Network science provides a way of linking city size to the forms of networks that are likely to enable cities to function in different ways. It can further provide insights into the potential effectiveness of various urban policies. This requires a better understanding of the types of practices and tools that contribute to building urban resilience. Genealogical approaches explore the evolution of these practices over time, including the values and power relations underpinning them. Building resilience in cities relies on investment decisions that prioritize spending on activities that offer alternatives, which perform well in different scenarios. Such decisions need to take into account future risks and uncertainties. Because risk can never be fully eliminated, emergency and disaster planning is crucial. Disaster risk management frameworks, for example, offer practical opportunities for enhancing resilience. More than half of the world's human population has lived in cities since 2007, and urbanization is calculated to rise to 80% by 2050. This means that the major resilience challenges of our era, such as poverty reduction, natural hazards and climate change, environmental sustainability, and social inclusion, will be won or lost in cities. Mass density of people makes them especially vulnerable both to the impacts of acute disasters and the slow, creeping effects of the changing climate; all making resilience planning critically important. At the same time, growing urbanization over the past century has been associated with a considerable increase in urban sprawl. Resilience efforts address how individuals, communities and business not only cope on the face of multiple shocks and stresses, but also exploit opportunities for transformational development. As one way of addressing disaster risk in urban areas, national and local governments, often supported by international funding agencies, engage in resettlement. This can be preventative, or occur after a disaster. While this reduces people's exposure to hazards, it can also lead to other problems, which can leave people more vulnerable or worse off than they were before. Resettlement needs to be understood as part of long-term sustainable development, not just as a means for disaster risk reduction. (en)
L'urbanisme désigne l'ensemble des sciences, des techniques et des arts relatifs à l'organisation et à l'aménagement des espaces urbains. Ce projet peut être sous-tendu par une volonté d'assurer le bien-être de l'homme et d'améliorer les rapports sociaux en préservant l'environnement. Les professionnels qui exercent ce métier sont des urbanistes. Selon les traditions académiques, cette discipline est associée tantôt à l'architecture, tantôt à la géographie, selon l'aspect mis en avant, l'intervention urbaine ou l'étude théorique. En France, l'enseignement et la recherche universitaire dans ce champ relèvent d'une section spécifique du Conseil national des universités (24, Aménagement de l'espace, Urbanisme). L'urbaniste Pierre Merlin écrit : « Les géographes ont souvent eu tendance à considérer, en France notamment, l'aménagement (et en particulier l'aménagement urbain, voire l'urbanisme) comme un prolongement naturel de leur discipline. Il s'agit en fait de champs d'action pluridisciplinaires par nature qui ne sauraient être l'apanage d'une seule discipline quelle qu'elle soit. Mais la géographie, discipline de l'espace à différentes échelles, est concernée au premier chef. » L'urbanisme intègre le domaine de la planification spatiale et met en pratique les méthodes de la planification au service de l'aménagement du territoire et de l'urbanisme. On distingue différentes échelles de la planification spatiale :
* le territoire national : l'aménagement du territoire ;
* la région, le massif ou une bande littorale : la planification régionale ;
* le quartier, la ville, jusqu'à l'agglomération : l'urbanisme ;
* l'îlot ou un groupe de bâtiments dont la composition n'atteint pas la superficie du quartier : la composition urbaine ;
* le bâtiment : l'architecture. (fr) +, Urbanism is the study of how inhabitants of urban areas, such as towns and cities, interact with the built environment. It is a direct component of disciplines such as urban planning, which is the profession focusing on the physical design and management of urban structures and urban sociology which is the academic field the study of urban life and culture. Many architects, planners, geographers, and sociologists investigate the way people live in densely populated urban areas. There is a wide variety of different theories and approaches to the study of urbanism. However, in some contexts internationally, urbanism is synonymous with urban planning, and urbanist refers to an urban planner. The term urbanism originated in the late nineteenth century with the Spanish engineer-architect Ildefons Cerda, whose intent was to create an autonomous activity focused on the spatial organization of the city. Urbanism's emergence in the early 20th century was associated with the rise of centralized manufacturing, mixed-use neighborhoods, social organizations and networks, and what has been described as "the convergence between political, social and economic citizenship". Urbanism can be understood as placemaking and the creation of place identity at a citywide level, however as early as 1938 Louis Wirth wrote that it is necessary to stop 'identify[ing] urbanism with the physical entity of the city', go 'beyond an arbitrary boundary line' and consider how 'technological developments in transportation and communication have enormously extended the urban mode of living beyond the confines of the city itself.' (en) +
Le cantonnement forestier est un droit seigneurial concernant les forêts de France, pendant le Moyen Âge et l'Ancien Régime. Dans une forêt sur laquelle pèsent des droits d'usage (affouage, glandée …) au profit des , le propriétaire (généralement le seigneur) peut s'en réserver une partie en toute propriété. Alors que le triage "est une opération qui consiste à distraire le tiers des biens communaux d'une paroisse au profit du seigneur, de la concession gratuite duquel ils proviennent", le cantonnement est une opération qui "consiste à réserver, à circonscrire le droit indéfini et illimité des habitants usagers sur une partie déterminée des fonds soumis à leur droit d'usage, afin de laisser le reste libre au seigneur propriétaire". Ce qui va déterminer le choix de la procédure à suivre est donc la relation entretenue par les ayant-droit sur un espace déterminé. Sont-ils propriétaires de cet espace ou simple usager, à titre gracieux, ou à cens d'un bois, d'une lande ou d'un marais. C’est surtout à partir du XVIIe siècle que les procédures se multiplient, les propriétaires forestiers voulant exclure les usagers de leurs bois afin d’être libre de la conduite forestière, voire de leur exploitation. Lorsqu’il s’agit d’alimenter un haut-fourneau, la procédure du cantonnement permet de mettre en place un taillis à rotation courte (autour de 10 ans) orienté vers la production de charbon. Dans l’est de la France, en zone de production métallurgique, les cantonnements seront à l’origine des forêts communales du XIXe siècle. (fr) +
L'usus (du latin signifiant « usage ») est le droit d'user d'une chose, sans que l'on en perçoive les fruits. Il se distingue :
* du fructus qui est le droit de disposer des fruits d'une chose,
* de l'abusus qui est le droit de disposer d'une chose, et notamment de l'aliéner. Ces trois droits sont les membres du droit de propriété. L'association de l'usus et du fructus compose le droit d'utiliser une chose et de jouir de ses fruits (« usufruit »). L'usus est un droit réel en ce sens qu'il s'exerce sur une chose, par opposition aux droits personnels qui s'exercent à l'encontre d'une personne (créance). (fr) +,
V
In Marxism, the valorisation or valorization of capital is the increase in the value of capital assets through the application of value-forming labour in production. The German original term is "Verwertung" (specifically Kapitalverwertung) but this is difficult to translate. The first translation of Capital by Samuel Moore and Edward Aveling, under Engels' editorship, renders "Verwertung" in different ways depending on the context, for example as "creation of surplus-value", "self-expanding value", "increase in value" and similar expressions. These renderings were also used in the US Untermann revised edition, and the Eden and Cedar Paul translation. It has also been wrongly rendered as "realisation of capital". In German, the general meaning of "Verwertung" is the productive use of a resource, and more specifically the use or application of something (an object, process or activity) so that it makes money, or generates value, with the connotation that the thing validates itself and proves its worth when it results in earnings, a yield. Thus, something is "valorised" if it has yielded its value (which could be use-value or exchange-value). Similarly, Marx's specific concept refers both to the process whereby a capital value is conferred or bestowed on something, and to the increase in the value of a capital asset, within the sphere of production. In modern translations of Marx's economic writings, such as the Penguin edition of Capital and the English Marx-Engels Collected Works, the term valorisation (as in French) is preferred because it is recognized that it denotes a highly specific economic concept, i.e., a term with a technical meaning. (en) +
