Rechercher par propriété

Cette page fournit une simple interface de navigation pour trouver des entités décrites par une propriété et une valeur nommée. D’autres interfaces de recherche disponibles comprennent la page recherche de propriété, et le constructeur de requêtes « ask ».

Liste de résultats

• Coworking  + (Coworking is an arrangement in which worke … Coworking is an arrangement in which workers for different companies share an office space, allowing cost savings and convenience through the use of common infrastructures, such as equipment, utilities and receptionist and custodial services, and in some cases refreshments and parcel acceptance services. It is attractive to independent contractors, independent scientists, remote workers, digital nomads, and people who travel frequently. Additionally, coworking helps workers avoid the feeling of social isolation they may experience while remote working or traveling and eliminate distractions. Most coworking spaces charge membership dues. Major companies that provide coworking space and serviced offices include WeWork and IWG plc.rviced offices include WeWork and IWG plc.)
• Creative commons  + (Creative Commons (CC) is an American non-p … Creative Commons (CC) is an American non-profit organization and international network devoted to educational access and expanding the range of creative works available for others to build upon legally and to share. The organization has released several copyright licenses, known as Creative Commons licenses, free of charge to the public. These licenses allow authors of creative works to communicate which rights they reserve and which rights they waive for the benefit of recipients or other creators. An easy-to-understand one-page explanation of rights, with associated visual symbols, explains the specifics of each Creative Commons license. Content owners still maintain their copyright, but Creative Commons licenses give standard releases that replace the individual negotiations for specific rights between copyright owner (licensor) and licensee, that are necessary under an "all rights reserved" copyright management. The organization was founded in 2001 by Lawrence Lessig, Hal Abelson, and Eric Eldred with the support of Center for the Public Domain. The first article in a general interest publication about Creative Commons, written by Hal Plotkin, was published in February 2002. The first set of copyright licenses was released in December 2002. The founding management team that developed the licenses and built the Creative Commons infrastructure as it is known today included Molly Shaffer Van Houweling, Glenn Otis Brown, Neeru Paharia, and Ben Adida. In 2002, the Open Content Project, a 1998 precursor project by David A. Wiley, announced the Creative Commons as successor project and Wiley joined as CC director. Aaron Swartz played a role in the early stages of Creative Commons, as did Matthew Haughey. As of 2019, there were "nearly 2 billion" works licensed under the various Creative Commons licenses. Wikipedia and its sister projects use one of these licenses. According to a 2017 report, Flickr alone hosted over 415 million cc-licensed photos, along with around 49 million works in YouTube, 40 million works in DeviantArt and 37 million works in WikiMedia Commons. The licenses are also used by Stack Exchange, MDN, Internet Archive, Khan Academy, LibreTexts, OpenStax, MIT OpenCourseWare, WikiHow, OpenStreetMap, GeoGebra, Doubtnut, Fandom, Arduino, ccmixter.org, ninjam etc, and formerly by Unsplash, Pixabay and Socratic.ormerly by Unsplash, Pixabay and Socratic.)
• Décroissance  + (Degrowth (French: décroissance) is a term … Degrowth (French: décroissance) is a term used for both a political, economic, and social movement as well as a set of theories that critique the paradigm of economic growth. It can be described as an extensive framework that is based on critiques of the growth-centered economic system in which we are living. Degrowth is based on ideas from a diverse range of lines of thought such as political ecology, ecological economics, feminist political ecology, and environmental justice, pointing out the social and ecological harm caused by the pursuit of infinite growth and Western "development" imperatives. Degrowth emphasizes the need to reduce global consumption and production (social metabolism) and advocates a socially just and ecologically sustainable society with social and environmental well-being replacing GDP as the indicator of prosperity. Hence, although GDP is likely to shrink in a "Degrowth society", i.e. a society in which the objectives of the degrowth movement are achieved, this is not the primary objective of degrowth. The main argument degrowth raises is that an infinite expansion of the economy is fundamentally contradictory to finite planetary boundaries. Degrowth highlights the importance of autonomy, care work, self-organization, commons, community, open localism, work sharing, happiness and conviviality. work sharing, happiness and conviviality.)
• Eau potable  + (Drinking water is water that is used in dr … Drinking water is water that is used in drink or food preparation; potable water is water that is safe to be used as drinking water. The amount of drinking water required to maintain good health varies, and depends on physical activity level, age, health-related issues, and environmental conditions. Recent work showed that the most important driver of water turnover which is closely linked to water requirements is energy expenditure. For those who work in a hot climate, up to 16 litres (4.2 US gal) a day may be required. Typically in developed countries, tap water meets drinking water quality standards, even though only a small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation. Other typical uses for tap water include washing, toilets, and irrigation. Greywater may also be used for toilets or irrigation. Its use for irrigation however may be associated with risks. Water may also be unacceptable due to levels of toxins or suspended solids. Globally, by 2015, 89% of people had access to water from a source that is suitable for drinking – called improved water source. In sub-Saharan Africa, access to potable water ranged from 40% to 80% of the population. Nearly 4.2 billion people worldwide had access to tap water, while another 2.4 billion had access to wells or public taps. The World Health Organization considers access to safe drinking-water a basic human right. About 1 to 2 billion people lack safe drinking water. Water can carry vectors of disease. More people die from unsafe water than from war, then-U.N. secretary-general Ban Ki-moon said in 2010. Third world countries are most affected by lack of water, flooding, and water quality. Up to 80 percent of illnesses in developing countries are the direct result of inadequate water and sanitation. According to a report by UNICEF and UNESCO, Finland has the best drinking water quality in the world. best drinking water quality in the world.)
• Anti-capitalisme  + (El término anticapitalismo se refiere a un … El término anticapitalismo se refiere a una extensa colección de ideologías, movimientos y actitudes que se oponen en forma total, o parcial, al capitalismo. En general, algunos anticapitalistas pueden estar a favor de algún tipo de colectivismo o comunitarismo económico o social, pero no todos y no necesariamente (existen anticapitalistas que defienden diferentes niveles de propiedad privada). Lo siguiente es una breve descripción de las ideologías, de los puntos de vista y de las tendencias más notables del contracapitalismo.encias más notables del contracapitalismo.)
• Enclosure  + (Enclosure or Inclosure is a term, used in … Enclosure or Inclosure is a term, used in English landownership, that refers to the appropriation of "waste" or "common land" enclosing it and by doing so depriving commoners of their rights of access and privilege. Agreements to enclose land could be either through a formal or informal process. The process could normally be accomplished in three ways. First there was the creation of "closes", taken out of larger common fields by their owners. Secondly, there was enclosure by proprietors, owners who acted together, usually small farmers or squires, leading to the enclosure of whole parishes. Finally there were enclosures by Acts of Parliament. The primary reason for enclosure was to improve the efficiency of agriculture. However, there were other motives too, one example being that the value of the land enclosed would be substantially increased. There were social consequences to the policy, with many protests at the removal of rights from the common people. Enclosure riots are seen by historians as 'the pre-eminent form' of social protest from the 1530s to 1640s.of social protest from the 1530s to 1640s.)
• Féminisme  + (Feminism is a range of socio-political mov … Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism incorporates the position that society prioritizes the male point of view and that women are treated unjustly in these societies. Efforts to change this include fighting against gender stereotypes and improving educational, professional, and interpersonal opportunities and outcomes for women. Feminist movements have campaigned and continue to campaign for women's rights, including the right to vote, run for public office, work, earn equal pay, own property, receive education, enter contracts, have equal rights within marriage, and maternity leave. Feminists have also worked to ensure access to contraception, legal abortions, and social integration and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment, and domestic violence. Changes in female dress standards and acceptable physical activities for females have often been part of feminist movements. Many scholars consider feminist campaigns to be a main force behind major historical societal changes for women's rights, particularly in the West, where they are near-universally credited with achieving women's suffrage, gender-neutral language, reproductive rights for women (including access to contraceptives and abortion), and the right to enter into contracts and own property. Although feminist advocacy is, and has been, mainly focused on women's rights, some feminists argue for the inclusion of men's liberation within its aims, because they believe that men are also harmed by traditional gender roles. Feminist theory, which emerged from feminist movements, aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived experience; feminist theorists have developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues concerning gender. Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years, representing different viewpoints and political aims. Traditionally, since the 19th century, first-wave liberal feminism that sought political and legal equality through reforms within a liberal democratic framework was contrasted with labour-based proletarian women's movements that over time developed into socialist and Marxist feminism based on class struggle theory. Since the 1960s, both of these traditions are also contrasted with radical feminism that arose from the radical wing of second-wave feminism and that calls for a radical reordering of society to eliminate male supremacy; together liberal, socialist and radical feminism are sometimes called the "Big Three" schools of feminist thought. Since the late 20th century, many newer forms of feminism have emerged. Some forms have been criticized as taking into account only white, middle class, college-educated, heterosexual, or cisgender perspectives. These criticisms have led to the creation of ethnically specific or multicultural forms of feminism, such as black feminism and intersectional feminism. Some feminists have argued that feminism often promotes misandry and the elevation of women's interests above men's, and criticize radical feminist positions as harmful to both men and women.ositions as harmful to both men and women.)
• Sécurité alimentaire  + (Food security speaks to the availability o … Food security speaks to the availability of food in a country (or geography) and the ability of individuals within that country (geography) to access, afford, and source adequate foodstuffs. According to the United Nations' Committee on World Food Security, food security is defined as meaning that all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their food preferences and dietary needs for an active and healthy life. The availability of food irrespective of class, gender or region is another element of food security. There is evidence of food security being a concern many thousands of years ago, with central authorities in ancient China and ancient Egypt being known to release food from storage in times of famine. At the 1974 World Food Conference, the term "food security" was defined with an emphasis on supply; food security is defined as the "availability at all times of adequate, nourishing, diverse, balanced and moderate world food supplies of basic foodstuffs to sustain a steady expansion of food consumption and to offset fluctuations in production and prices". Later definitions added demand and access issues to the definition. The first World Food Summit, held in 1996, stated that food security "exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life." Similarly, household food security is considered to exist when all members, at all times, have access to enough food for an active, healthy life. Individuals who are food secure do not live in hunger or fear of starvation. Food insecurity, on the other hand, is defined by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) as a situation of "limited or uncertain availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods or limited or uncertain ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways". Food security incorporates a measure of resilience to future disruption or unavailability of critical food supply due to various risk factors including droughts, shipping disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability, and wars. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, or FAO, identified the four pillars of food security as availability, access, utilization, and stability. The United Nations (UN) recognized the Right to Food in the Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, and has since said that it is vital for the enjoyment of all other rights. The 1996 World Summit on Food Security declared that "food should not be used as an instrument for political and economic pressure". Multiple different international agreements and mechanisms have been developed to address food security. The main global policy to reduce hunger and poverty is in the Sustainable Development Goals. In particular Goal 2: Zero Hunger sets globally agreed on targets to end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture by 2030.d promote sustainable agriculture by 2030.)
• Logiciel libre  + (Free software or libre software, infrequen … Free software or libre software, infrequently known as freedom-respecting software, is computer software distributed under terms that allow users to run the software for any purpose as well as to study, change, and distribute it and any adapted versions. Free software is a matter of liberty, not price; all users are legally free to do what they want with their copies of a free software (including profiting from them) regardless of how much is paid to obtain the program. Computer programs are deemed "free" if they give end-users (not just the developer) ultimate control over the software and, subsequently, over their devices. The right to study and modify a computer program entails that source code—the preferred format for making changes—be made available to users of that program. While this is often called "access to source code" or "public availability", the Free Software Foundation (FSF) recommends against thinking in those terms, because it might give the impression that users have an obligation (as opposed to a right) to give non-users a copy of the program. Although the term "free software" had already been used loosely in the past and other permissive software like the Berkeley Software Distribution released in 1978 existed, Richard Stallman is credited with tying it to the sense under discussion and starting the free software movement in 1983, when he launched the GNU Project: a collaborative effort to create a freedom-respecting operating system, and to revive the spirit of cooperation once prevalent among hackers during the early days of computing.ackers during the early days of computing.)
• Changement climatique  + (In common usage, climate change describes … In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The current rise in global average temperature is more rapid than previous changes, and is primarily caused by humans burning fossil fuels. Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices increase greenhouse gases, notably carbon dioxide and methane. Greenhouse gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight. Larger amounts of these gases trap more heat in Earth's lower atmosphere, causing global warming. Due to climate change, deserts are expanding, while heat waves and wildfires are becoming more common. Increased warming in the Arctic has contributed to melting permafrost, glacial retreat and sea ice loss. Higher temperatures are also causing more intense storms, droughts, and other weather extremes. Rapid environmental change in mountains, coral reefs, and the Arctic is forcing many species to relocate or become extinct. Even if efforts to minimise future warming are successful, some effects will continue for centuries. These include ocean heating, ocean acidification and sea level rise. Climate change threatens people with food and water scarcity, increased flooding, extreme heat, more disease, and economic loss. Human migration and conflict can also be a result. The World Health Organization (WHO) calls climate change the greatest threat to global health in the 21st century. Communities may adapt to climate change through efforts like coastline protection or expanding access to air conditioning, but some impacts are unavoidable. Poorer countries are responsible for a small share of global emissions, yet they have the least ability to adapt and are most vulnerable to climate change. Many climate change impacts are already felt at the current 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) level of warming. Additional warming will increase these impacts and may trigger tipping points, such as the melting of the Greenland ice sheet. Under the 2015 Paris Agreement, nations collectively agreed to keep warming "well under 2 °C". However, with pledges made under the Agreement, global warming would still reach about 2.7 °C (4.9 °F) by the end of the century. Limiting warming to 1.5 °C will require halving emissions by 2030 and achieving net-zero emissions by 2050. Reducing emissions requires generating electricity from low-carbon sources rather than burning fossil fuels. This change includes phasing out coal and natural gas fired power plants, vastly increasing use of wind, solar, and other types of renewable energy, and reducing energy use. Electricity generated from non-carbon-emitting sources will need to replace fossil fuels for powering transportation, heating buildings, and operating industrial facilities. Carbon can also be removed from the atmosphere, for instance by increasing forest cover and by farming with methods that capture carbon in soil. with methods that capture carbon in soil.)
• Tragédie des communs  + (In economics and in an ecological context, … In economics and in an ecological context, the tragedy of the commons is a situation in which individual users, who have open access to a resource unhampered by shared social structures or formal rules that govern access and use, act independently according to their own self-interest and, contrary to the common good of all users, cause depletion of the resource through their uncoordinated action in case there are too many users related to the available resources. Central element of the concept originated in an essay written in 1833 by the British economist William Forster Lloyd, who used a hypothetical example of the effects of unregulated grazing on common land, also known as "the commons" (in Anglo-Saxon law) in Great Britain and Ireland. In embryonic form the idea can also be found at Aristotle: "That which is common to the greatest number gets the least amount of care. Men pay most attention to what is their own: they care less for what is common." The theory became widely known as the "tragedy of the commons" after an essay with this title was published in Science written by Garrett Hardin in 1968. It became one of the most cited academic papers ever published and also one of the most heavily criticized, particularly by anthropologists and historians. Hardin, who wrote a total of 350 articles and 27 books, describes in this early essay that common use will only work reasonably satisfactorily as long as the number of man and beast stay well below the carrying capacity of the land. The availability of resources and the amount of people depending on it should therefor be kept in balance. As a punch-line in the article he writes that a freedom to breed is intolerable. As a result of discussions carried out in the decade after publication, Hardin in a talk in the early 80s suggested a better wording of the central idea: "Under conditions of overpopulation, freedom in an unmanaged commons brings ruin to all." In 1991, faced with evidence of historical and existing commons, Hardin retracted his original thesis and wrote "The Tragedy of the 'Unmanaged' Commons". Critical scholars note that although taken as a hypothetical example by Lloyd, the historical demise of the commons of Britain and Europe resulted not from misuse of long-held rights of usage by the commoners, but from the commons' owners enclosing and appropriating the land, abrogating the commoners' rights. Although open-access resource systems may collapse due to overuse (such as in overfishing), many examples have existed and still do exist where members of a community with regulated access to a common resource co-operate to exploit those resources prudently without collapse, or even creating "perfect order". Elinor Ostrom was awarded the 2009 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for demonstrating this concept in her book , which included examples of how local communities were able to do this without top-down regulations or privatization. On the other hand, Dieter Helm argues that these examples are context-specific and the tragedy of the commons "is not generally solved this way. If it were, the destruction of nature would not have occurred." In a modern global economic context, "commons" is taken to mean any open-access and unregulated resource such as the atmosphere, oceans, rivers, ocean fish stocks, or even an office refrigerator. In an anglo-saxon legal context the concept of the commons derive from a centuries old principle that not all land can be in private hands, but certain types of goods should only belong to the society. Here commons is a type of property that is neither private nor public, but rather held jointly by the members of a community in the interest of the community, who govern access and use through social structures, traditions, or formal rules. In environmental science, the "tragedy of the commons" is often cited in connection with sustainable development, meshing economic growth and environmental protection, as well as in the debate over global warming. It has also been used in analyzing behavior in the fields of economics, evolutionary psychology, anthropology, game theory, politics, taxation, and sociology.theory, politics, taxation, and sociology.)
• Biens publics  + (In economics, a public good (also referred … In economics, a public good (also referred to as a social good or collective good) is a good that is both non-excludable and non-rivalrous. For such goods, users cannot be barred from accessing or using them for failing to pay for them. Also, use by one person neither prevents access of other people nor does it reduce availability to others. Therefore, the good can be used simultaneously by more than one person. This is in contrast to a common good, such as wild fish stocks in the ocean, which is non-excludable but rivalrous to a certain degree. If too many fish were harvested, the stocks would deplete, limiting the access of fish for others. A public good must be valuable to more than one user, otherwise, the fact that it can be used simultaneously by more than one person would be economically irrelevant. Capital goods may be used to produce public goods or services that are "...typically provided on a large scale to many consumers." Unlike other types of economic goods, public goods are described as “non-rivalrous” or “non-exclusive,” and use by one person neither prevents access of other people nor does it reduce availability to others. Similarly, using capital goods to produce public goods may result in the creation of new capital goods. In some cases, public goods or services are considered "...insufficiently profitable to be provided by the private sector.... (and), in the absence of government provision, these goods or services would be produced in relatively small quantities or, perhaps, not at all." Public goods include knowledge, official statistics, national security, common languages, law enforcement, public parks, free roads, television and radio broadcasts. Additionally, flood control systems, lighthouses, and street lighting are also common social goods. Collective goods that are spread all over the face of the earth may be referred to as global public goods. This is not limited to physical book literature, but also media, pictures and videos. For instance, knowledge is well shared globally. Information about men, women and youth health awareness, environmental issues, and maintaining biodiversity is common knowledge that every individual in the society can get without necessarily preventing others access. Also, sharing and interpreting contemporary history with a cultural lexicon, particularly about protected cultural heritage sites and monuments are other sources of knowledge that the people can freely access. Public goods problems are often closely related to the "free-rider" problem, in which people not paying for the good may continue to access it. Thus, the good may be under-produced, overused or degraded. Public goods may also become subject to restrictions on access and may then be considered to be club goods; exclusion mechanisms include toll roads, congestion pricing, and pay television with an encoded signal that can be decrypted only by paid subscribers. There is a good deal of debate and literature on how to measure the significance of public goods problems in an economy, and to identify the best remedies.conomy, and to identify the best remedies.)
• Peuple autochtone  + (Indigenous peoples are culturally distinct … Indigenous peoples are culturally distinct ethnic groups whose members are directly descended from the earliest known inhabitants of a particular geographic region and, to some extent, maintain the language and culture of those original peoples. The term Indigenous was first, in its modern context, used by Europeans, who used it to differentiate the Indigenous peoples of the Americas from the European settlers of the Americas and from the Africans who were brought to the Americas as enslaved people. The term may have first been used in this context by Sir Thomas Browne in 1646, who stated "and although in many parts thereof there be at present swarms of Negroes serving under the Spaniard, yet were they all transported from Africa, since the discovery of Columbus; and are not indigenous or proper natives of America." Peoples are usually described as "Indigenous" when they maintain traditions or other aspects of an early culture that is associated with the first inhabitants of a given region. Not all Indigenous peoples share this characteristic, as many have adopted substantial elements of a colonizing culture, such as dress, religion or language. Indigenous peoples may be settled in a given region (sedentary), exhibit a nomadic lifestyle across a large territory, or be resettled, but they are generally historically associated with a specific territory on which they depend. Indigenous societies are found in every inhabited climate zone and continent of the world except Antarctica. There are approximately five thousand Indigenous nations throughout the world. Indigenous peoples' homelands have historically been colonized by larger ethnic groups, who justified colonization with beliefs of racial and religious superiority, land use or economic opportunity. Thousands of Indigenous nations throughout the world are currently living in countries where they are not a majority ethnic group. Indigenous peoples continue to face threats to their sovereignty, economic well-being, languages, ways of knowing, and access to the resources on which their cultures depend. Indigenous rights have been set forth in international law by the United Nations, the International Labour Organization, and the World Bank. In 2007, the UN issued a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) to guide member-state national policies to the collective rights of Indigenous peoples, including their rights to protect their cultures, identities, languages, ceremonies, and access to employment, health, education and natural resources. Estimates of the total global population of Indigenous peoples usually range from 250 million to 600 million. Official designations and terminology of who is considered Indigenous vary between countries. In settler states colonized by Europeans, such as in the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, and Oceania, Indigenous status is generally unproblematically applied to groups directly descended from the peoples who have lived there prior to European settlement. In Asia and Africa, where the majority of Indigenous peoples live, Indigenous population figures are less clear and may fluctuate dramatically as states tend to underreport the population of Indigenous peoples, or define them by different terminology., or define them by different terminology.)
• Agriculture biologique  + (La agricultura ecológica, orgánica o bioló … La agricultura ecológica, orgánica o biológica es un sistema de cultivo de una explotación agrícola autónoma basada en la utilización óptima de los recursos naturales, sin emplear productos químicos sintéticos, u organismos genéticamente modificados (OGMs) —ni para abono ni para combatir las plagas—ni para cultivos, logrando de esta forma obtener alimentos orgánicos a la vez que se conserva la fertilidad de la tierra y se respeta el medio ambiente. Todo ello de manera sostenible, equilibrada y mantenible. Los principales objetivos de la agricultura orgánica son la obtención de alimentos saludables, de mayor calidad nutritiva, sin la presencia de sustancias de síntesis química y obtenidos mediante procedimientos sostenibles. Este tipo de agricultura es un sistema global de gestión de la producción, que incrementa y realza la salud de los agrosistemas, inclusive la diversidad biológica, los ciclos biológicos y la actividad biológica del suelo. Esto se consigue aplicando, siempre que sea posible, métodos agronómicos, biológicos y mecánicos, en contraposición a la utilización de materiales sintéticos para desempeñar cualquier función específica del sistema. Esta forma de producción, además de contemplar el aspecto ecológico, incluye en su filosofía el mejoramiento de las condiciones de vida de sus practicantes, de tal forma que su objetivo se apega a lograr la sostenibilidad integral del sistema de producción agrícola; o sea, constituirse como un agrosistema social, ecológico y económicamente sostenible. La agricultura natural, la agricultura indígena, la agricultura familiar, la agricultura campesina, son tipos de agricultura natural que buscan el equilibrio con el ecosistema, son sistemas agrícolas sostenibles, que se han mantenido a lo largo del tiempo en distintas regiones del mundo buscando satisfacer la demanda de alimento natural y nutritivo a las personas y los animales, de manera que el agroecosistema mantenga el equilibrio.La agricultura biodinámica, y la permacultura, comparten algunos de sus principios y métodos, pero son más recientes. En esta práctica se puede tomar en cuenta los policultivos que a diferencia de los monocultivos provocan la erosión del suelo y evitan que se aprovechen los recursos del suelo. que se aprovechen los recursos del suelo.)
• Logiciel open source  + (La désignation open source /ˈoʊpən sɔɹs/, … La désignation open source /ˈoʊpən sɔɹs/, ou code source ouvert, s'applique aux logiciels (et s'étend maintenant aux œuvres de l'esprit) dont la licence respecte des critères précisément établis par l'Open Source Initiative, c'est-à-dire les possibilités de libre redistribution, d'accès au code source et de création de travaux dérivés. Mis à la disposition du grand public, ce code source est généralement le résultat d'une collaboration entre programmeurs. Le mouvement open source s'est développé en parallèle du mouvement du logiciel libre qui prône des valeurs philosophiques et politiques de justice, l'open source se focalisant sur des considérations techniques de développement logiciel et ne s'opposant pas à l'utilisation de systèmes intégrés combinant logiciels propriétaires et logiciels open source. Dans la pratique toutefois, la très grande majorité des logiciels open source sont également libres, l'exception la plus notable étant les logiciels pratiquant la tivoïsation. L’open source a déjà investi tous les grands domaines du système d’information des administrations françaises : environnements serveurs, domaines applicatifs, outils d’ingénierie, solutions de réseaux et sécurité. Les solutions open source sont désormais au même rang que les solutions propriétaires dans le paysage des logiciels du secteur public. Les décideurs effectuent d’ailleurs de plus en plus leur choix à partir d’un jugement éclairé, en comparant systématiquement solutions propriétaires et solutions libres.lutions propriétaires et solutions libres.)
• Linux  + (Linux (/ˈliːnʊks/ LEE-nuuks or /ˈlɪnʊks/ L … Linux (/ˈliːnʊks/ LEE-nuuks or /ˈlɪnʊks/ LIN-uuks) is a family of open-source Unix-like operating systems based on the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released on September 17, 1991, by Linus Torvalds. Linux is typically packaged as a Linux distribution, which includes the kernel and supporting system software and libraries, many of which are provided by the GNU Project. Many Linux distributions use the word "Linux" in their name, but the Free Software Foundation uses the name "GNU/Linux" to emphasize the importance of GNU software, causing some controversy. Popular Linux distributions include Debian, Fedora Linux, and Ubuntu, the latter of which itself consists of many different distributions and modifications, including Lubuntu and Xubuntu. Commercial distributions include Red Hat Enterprise Linux and SUSE Linux Enterprise. Desktop Linux distributions include a windowing system such as X11 or Wayland, and a desktop environment such as GNOME or KDE Plasma. Distributions intended for servers may omit graphics altogether, or include a solution stack such as LAMP. Because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any purpose. Linux was originally developed for personal computers based on the Intel x86 architecture, but has since been ported to more platforms than any other operating system. Because of the dominance of the Linux-based Android on smartphones, Linux, including Android, has the largest installed base of all general-purpose operating systems, as of May 2022. Although Linux is, as of November 2022, used by only around 2.6 percent of desktop computers, the Chromebook, which runs the Linux kernel-based ChromeOS, dominates the US K–12 education market and represents nearly 20 percent of sub-$300 notebook sales in the US. Linux is the leading operating system on servers (over 96.4% of the top 1 million web servers' operating systems are Linux), leads other big iron systems such as mainframe computers, and is used on all of the world's 500 fastest supercompters (since November 2017, having gradually displaced all competitors). Linux also runs on embedded systems, i.e. devices whose operating system is typically built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system. This includes routers, automation controls, smart home devices, video game consoles, televisions (Samsung and LG Smart TVs), automobiles (Tesla, Audi, Mercedes-Benz, Hyundai and Toyota), and spacecraft (Falcon 9 rocket, Dragon crew capsule and the Perseverance rover). Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and open-source software collaboration. The source code may be used, modified and distributed commercially or non-commercially by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License (GPL). The Linux kernel, for example, is licensed under the GPLv2. for example, is licensed under the GPLv2.)
• Magna carta  + (Magna Carta Libertatum (Medieval Latin for … Magna Carta Libertatum (Medieval Latin for "Great Charter of Freedoms"), commonly called Magna Carta (also Magna Charta; "Great Charter"), is a royal charter of rights agreed to by King John of England at Runnymede, near Windsor, on 15 June 1215. First drafted by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Cardinal Stephen Langton, to make peace between the unpopular king and a group of rebel barons, it promised the protection of church rights, protection for the barons from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and limitations on feudal payments to the Crown, to be implemented through a council of 25 barons. Neither side stood behind their commitments, and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III, leading to the First Barons' War. After John's death, the regency government of his young son, Henry III, reissued the document in 1216, stripped of some of its more radical content, in an unsuccessful bid to build political support for their cause. At the end of the war in 1217, it formed part of the peace treaty agreed at Lambeth, where the document acquired the name "Magna Carta", to distinguish it from the smaller Charter of the Forest which was issued at the same time. Short of funds, Henry reissued the charter again in 1225 in exchange for a grant of new taxes. His son, Edward I, repeated the exercise in 1297, this time confirming it as part of England's statute law. The charter became part of English political life and was typically renewed by each monarch in turn, although as time went by and the fledgling Parliament of England passed new laws, it lost some of its practical significance. At the end of the 16th century, there was an upsurge in interest in Magna Carta. Lawyers and historians at the time believed that there was an ancient English constitution, going back to the days of the Anglo-Saxons, that protected individual English freedoms. They argued that the Norman invasion of 1066 had overthrown these rights, and that Magna Carta had been a popular attempt to restore them, making the charter an essential foundation for the contemporary powers of Parliament and legal principles such as habeas corpus. Although this historical account was badly flawed, jurists such as Sir Edward Coke used Magna Carta extensively in the early 17th century, arguing against the divine right of kings. Both James I and his son Charles I attempted to suppress the discussion of Magna Carta. The political myth of Magna Carta and its protection of ancient personal liberties persisted after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 until well into the 19th century. It influenced the early American colonists in the Thirteen Colonies and the formation of the United States Constitution, which became the supreme law of the land in the new republic of the United States. Research by Victorian historians showed that the original 1215 charter had concerned the medieval relationship between the monarch and the barons, rather than the rights of ordinary people, but the charter remained a powerful, iconic document, even after almost all of its content was repealed from the statute books in the 19th and 20th centuries. Four clauses of the original 1215 charter (1 (part), 13, 39 and 40) remain in force in England and Wales (as clauses 1, 9 and 29 of the 1297 statute). Magna Carta still forms an important symbol of liberty today, often cited by politicians and campaigners, and is held in great respect by the British and American legal communities, Lord Denning describing it as "the greatest constitutional document of all times—the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot". In the 21st century, four exemplifications of the original 1215 charter remain in existence, two at the British Library, one at Lincoln Castle and one at Salisbury Cathedral. There are also a handful of the subsequent charters in public and private ownership, including copies of the 1297 charter in both the United States and Australia. Although scholars refer to the 63 numbered "clauses" of Magna Carta, this is a modern system of numbering, introduced by Sir William Blackstone in 1759; the original charter formed a single, long unbroken text. The four original 1215 charters were displayed together at the British Library for one day, 3 February 2015, to mark the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta.mark the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta.)
• Open Data  + (Open data is data that is openly accessibl … Open data is data that is openly accessible, exploitable, editable and shared by anyone for any purpose. Open data is licensed under an open license. The goals of the open data movement are similar to those of other "open(-source)" movements such as open-source software, hardware, open content, open specifications, open education, open educational resources, open government, open knowledge, open access, open science, and the open web. The growth of the open data movement is paralleled by a rise in intellectual property rights. The philosophy behind open data has been long established (for example in the Mertonian tradition of science), but the term "open data" itself is recent, gaining popularity with the rise of the Internet and World Wide Web and, especially, with the launch of open-data government initiatives such as Data.gov, Data.gov.uk and Data.gov.in. Open data can be linked data - referred to as linked open data. One of the most important forms of open data is open government data (OGD), which is a form of open data created by ruling government institutions. Open government data's importance is born from it being a part of citizens' everyday lives, down to the most routine/mundane tasks that are seemingly far removed from government. The abbreviation FAIR/O data is sometimes used to indicate that the dataset or database in question complies with the principles of FAIR data and carries an explicit data‑capable open license.ies an explicit data‑capable open license.)
• Science ouverte  + (Open science is the movement to make scien … Open science is the movement to make scientific research (including publications, data, physical samples, and software) and its dissemination accessible to all levels of society, amateur or professional. Open science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks. It encompasses practices such as publishing open research, campaigning for open access, encouraging scientists to practice open-notebook science (such as openly sharing data and code), broader dissemination and engagement in science and generally making it easier to publish, access and communicate scientific knowledge. Usage of the term varies substantially across disciplines, with a notable prevalence in the STEM disciplines. Open research is often used quasi-synonymously to address the gap that the denotion of "science" might have regarding an inclusion of the Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences. The primary focus connecting all disciplines is the widespread uptake of new technologies and tools, and the underlying ecology of the production, dissemination and reception of knowledge from a research-based point-of-view. As Tennant et al. (2020) note, the term open science "implicitly seems only to regard ‘scientific’ disciplines, whereas open scholarship can be considered to include research from the Arts and Humanities, as well as the different roles and practices that researchers perform as educators and communicators, and an underlying open philosophy of sharing knowledge beyond research communities." Open science can be seen as a continuation of, rather than a revolution in, practices begun in the 17th century with the advent of the academic journal, when the societal demand for access to scientific knowledge reached a point at which it became necessary for groups of scientists to share resources with each other. In modern times there is debate about the extent to which scientific information should be shared. The conflict that led to the Open Science movement is between the desire of scientists to have access to shared resources versus the desire of individual entities to profit when other entities partake of their resources. Additionally, the status of open access and resources that are available for its promotion are likely to differ from one field of academic inquiry to another. one field of academic inquiry to another.)
• Logiciel open source  + (Open-source software (OSS) is computer sof … Open-source software (OSS) is computer software that is released under a license in which the copyright holder grants users the rights to use, study, change, and distribute the software and its source code to anyone and for any purpose. Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. Open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration, meaning any capable user is able to participate online in development, making the number of possible contributors indefinite. The ability to examine the code facilitates public trust in the software. Open-source software development can bring in diverse perspectives beyond those of a single company. A 2008 report by the Standish Group stated that adoption of open-source software models has resulted in savings of about $60 billion per year for consumers. Open source code can be used for studying and allows capable end users to adapt software to their personal needs in a similar way user scripts and custom style sheets allow for web sites, and eventually publish the modification as a fork for users with similar preferences, and directly submit possible improvements as pull requests.it possible improvements as pull requests.)
• P2P  + (Peer-to-peer (P2P) computing or networking … Peer-to-peer (P2P) computing or networking is a distributed application architecture that partitions tasks or workloads between peers. Peers are equally privileged, equipotent participants in the network. They are said to form a peer-to-peer network of nodes. Peers make a portion of their resources, such as processing power, disk storage or network bandwidth, directly available to other network participants, without the need for central coordination by servers or stable hosts. Peers are both suppliers and consumers of resources, in contrast to the traditional client–server model in which the consumption and supply of resources are divided. While P2P systems had previously been used in many application domains, the architecture was popularized by the file sharing system Napster, originally released in 1999. The concept has inspired new structures and philosophies in many areas of human interaction. In such social contexts, peer-to-peer as a meme refers to the egalitarian social networking that has emerged throughout society, enabled by Internet technologies in general.abled by Internet technologies in general.)
• Permaculture  + (Permaculture is an approach to land manage … Permaculture is an approach to land management and settlement design that adopts arrangements observed in flourishing natural ecosystems. It includes a set of design principles derived using whole-systems thinking. It applies these principles in fields such as regenerative agriculture, town planning, rewilding, and community resilience. Permaculture originally came from "permanent agriculture", but was later adjusted to mean "permanent culture", incorporating social aspects. The term was coined in 1978 by Bill Mollison and David Holmgren, who formulated the concept in opposition to modern industrialized methods instead adopting a more traditional or "natural" approach to agriculture. Permaculture has many branches including ecological design, ecological engineering, regenerative design, environmental design, and construction. It also includes integrated water resources management, sustainable architecture, and regenerative and self-maintained habitat and agricultural systems modeled from natural ecosystems. Permaculture uses creative design processes based on whole-systems thinking, considering all materials and energies in flow that affect or are affected by proposed changes. In practical terms it means that before, for example, modifying overland water flow, one fully considers both upstream and downstream effects in the short and long terms. Or, when looking at a "problem", such as brushy vegetation, one considers how removing or altering it will affect soil and wildlife, and how these interacting forces would evolve over time and space. Permaculture has been criticised as being poorly defined and unscientific. Critics have pushed for less reliance on anecdote and extrapolation from ecological first principles, in favor of peer-reviewed research to substantiate productivity claims and to clarify methodology. Peter Harper from the Centre for Alternative Technology suggests that most of what passes for permaculture has no relevance to real problems.culture has no relevance to real problems.)
• Santé publique  + (Public health is "the science and art of p … Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals". Analyzing the determinants of health of a population and the threats it faces is the basis for public health. The public can be as small as a handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city; in the case of a pandemic it may encompass several continents. The concept of health takes into account physical, psychological, and social well-being. Public health is an interdisciplinary field. For example, epidemiology, biostatistics, social sciences and management of health services are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health, health education, health politics, occupational safety, disability, oral health, gender issues in health, and sexual and reproductive health. Public health, together with primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, is part of a country's overall health care system. Public health is implemented through the surveillance of cases and health indicators, and through the promotion of healthy behaviors. Common public health initiatives include promotion of hand-washing and breastfeeding, delivery of vaccinations, promoting ventilation and improved air quality both indoors and outdoors, suicide prevention, smoking cessation, obesity education, increasing healthcare accessibility and distribution of condoms to control the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. There is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed countries and developing countries, as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained healthcare workers, monetary resources, or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even a basic level of medical care and disease prevention. A major public health concern in developing countries is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty coupled with governments' reluctance in implementing public health policies. From the beginnings of human civilization, communities promoted health and fought disease at the population level. In complex, pre-industrialized societies, interventions designed to reduce health risks could be the initiative of different stakeholders, such as army generals, the clergy or rulers. Great Britain became a leader in the development of public health initiatives, beginning in the 19th century, due to the fact that it was the first modern urban nation worldwide. The public health initiatives that began to emerge initially focused on sanitation (for example, the Liverpool and London sewerage systems), control of infectious diseases (including vaccination and quarantine) and an evolving infrastructure of various sciences, e.g. statistics, microbiology, epidemiology, sciences of engineering.gy, epidemiology, sciences of engineering.)
• Logiciel libre  + (Un logiciel libre est un logiciel dont l'u … Un logiciel libre est un logiciel dont l'utilisation, l'étude, la modification et la duplication par autrui en vue de sa diffusion sont permises, techniquement et juridiquement, ceci afin de garantir certaines libertés induites, dont le contrôle du programme par l'utilisateur et la possibilité de partage entre individus. Ces droits peuvent être simplement disponibles — cas du domaine public — ou bien établis par une licence, dite « libre », basée sur le droit d'auteur. Les « licences copyleft » garantissent le maintien de ces droits aux utilisateurs même pour les travaux dérivés. Les logiciels libres constituent une alternative à ceux qui ne le sont pas, qualifiés de « propriétaires » ou de « privateurs ». Ces derniers sont alors considérés par une partie de la communauté du logiciel libre comme étant l'instrument d'un pouvoir injuste, en permettant au développeur de contrôler l'utilisateur. Le logiciel libre est souvent confondu à tort avec : </br>* les gratuiciels (freewares) : un gratuiciel est un logiciel gratuit propriétaire, alors qu'un logiciel libre se définit par les libertés accordées à l'utilisateur. Si la nature du logiciel libre facilite et encourage son partage, ce qui tend à le rendre gratuit, elle ne s'oppose pas pour autant à sa rentabilité principalement via des services associés. Les rémunérations sont liées par exemple aux travaux de création, de développement, de mise à disposition et de soutien technique. D'un autre côté les logiciels gratuits ne sont pas nécessairement libres, car leur code source n'est pas systématiquement accessible et leur licence peut ne pas correspondre à la définition du logiciel libre. </br>* l’open source : le logiciel libre, selon son initiateur, est un mouvement social qui repose sur les principes de Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité ; l’open source quant à lui, décrit pour la première fois dans La Cathédrale et le Bazar, s'attache aux avantages d'une méthode de développement au travers de la réutilisation du code source.ravers de la réutilisation du code source.)
• Agriculture urbaine  + (Urban agriculture, urban farming, or urban … Urban agriculture, urban farming, or urban gardening is the practice of cultivating, processing, and distributing food in or around urban areas. It encompasses a complex and diverse mix of food production activities, including fisheries and forestry, in cities in both developed and developing countries. The term also applies to urban area activities of animal husbandry, aquaculture, beekeeping, and horticulture. These activities occur in peri-urban areas as well, although peri-urban agriculture may have different characteristics. Urban agriculture can reflect varying levels of economic and social development. It may be a social movement for sustainable communities, where organic growers, "foodies", and "locavores" form social networks founded on a shared ethos of nature and community holism. These networks can evolve when receiving formal institutional support, becoming integrated into local town planning as a "transition town" movement for sustainable urban development. For others, food security, nutrition, and income generation are key motivations for the practice. In both scenarios, more direct access to fresh vegetables, fruits, and meat products through urban agriculture can improve food security and food safety.can improve food security and food safety.)

• Accès libre  + (El acceso abierto (en inglés, Open access … El acceso abierto (en inglés, Open access (OA)) es el acceso inmediato, sin requerimientos de registro, suscripción o pago -es decir sin restricciones- a material digital educativo, académico, científico o de cualquier otro tipo, principalmente artículos de investigación científica de revistas especializadas y arbitradas mediante el sistema de revisión por pares o peer review.stema de revisión por pares o peer review.)

• Licences Creative Commons  + (A Creative Commons (CC) license is one of … A Creative Commons (CC) license is one of several public copyright licenses that enable the free distribution of an otherwise copyrighted "work". A CC license is used when an author wants to give other people the right to share, use, and build upon a work that the author has created. CC provides an author flexibility (for example, they might choose to allow only non-commercial uses of a given work) and protects the people who use or redistribute an author's work from concerns of copyright infringement as long as they abide by the conditions that are specified in the license by which the author distributes the work. There are several types of Creative Commons licenses. Each license differs by several combinations that condition the terms of distribution. They were initially released on December 16, 2002, by Creative Commons, a U.S. non-profit corporation founded in 2001. There have also been five versions of the suite of licenses, numbered 1.0 through 4.0. Released in November 2013, the 4.0 license suite is the most current. While the Creative Commons license was originally grounded in the American legal system, there are now several Creative Commons jurisdiction ports which accommodate international laws. In October 2014, the Open Knowledge Foundation approved the Creative Commons CC BY, CC BY-SA and CC0 licenses as conformant with the "Open Definition" for content and data.he "Open Definition" for content and data.)
• Plateforme  + (A computing platform or digital platform i … A computing platform or digital platform is an environment in which a piece of software is executed. It may be the hardware or the operating system (OS), even a web browser and associated application programming interfaces, or other underlying software, as long as the program code is executed with it. Computing platforms have different abstraction levels, including a computer architecture, an OS, or runtime libraries. A computing platform is the stage on which computer programs can run. A platform can be seen both as a constraint on the software development process, in that different platforms provide different functionality and restrictions; and as an assistant to the development process, in that they provide low-level functionality ready-made. For example, an OS may be a platform that abstracts the underlying differences in hardware and provides a generic command for saving files or accessing the network.for saving files or accessing the network.)
• Assemblée populaire  + (A popular assembly (or people's assembly) … A popular assembly (or people's assembly) is a gathering called to address issues of importance to participants. Assemblies tend to be freely open to participation and operate by direct democracy. Some assemblies are of people from a location, some from a given workplace, industry or educational establishment others are called to address a specific issue. The term is often used to describe gatherings that address, what participants feel are, the effects of a democratic deficit in representative democratic systems. Sometimes assemblies are created to form an alternative power structure, other times they work with other forms of government. they work with other forms of government.)
• Collaboration  + (Collaboration (from Latin com- "with" + la … Collaboration (from Latin com- "with" + laborare "to labor", "to work") is the process of two or more people, entities or organizations working together to complete a task or achieve a goal. Collaboration is similar to cooperation. Most collaboration requires leadership, although the form of leadership can be social within a decentralized and egalitarian group. Teams that work collaboratively often access greater resources, recognition and rewards when facing competition for finite resources. Structured methods of collaboration encourage introspection of behavior and communication. Such methods aim to increase the success of teams as they engage in collaborative problem-solving. Collaboration is present in opposing goals exhibiting the notion of adversarial collaboration, though this is not a common use of the term. In its applied sense, "(a) collaboration is a purposeful relationship in which all parties strategically choose to cooperate in order to accomplish a shared outcome." in order to accomplish a shared outcome.")
• Propriété collective  + (Common ownership refers to holding the ass … Common ownership refers to holding the assets of an organization, enterprise or community indivisibly rather than in the names of the individual members or groups of members as common property. Forms of common ownership exist in every economic system. Common ownership of the means of production is a central goal of communist political movements as it is seen as a necessary democratic mechanism for the creation and continued function of a communist society. Advocates make a distinction between collective ownership and common property as the former refers to property owned jointly by agreement of a set of colleagues, such as producer cooperatives, whereas the latter refers to assets that are completely open for access, such as a public park freely available to everyone. public park freely available to everyone.)
• Association pour le maintien d'une agriculture paysanne  + (Community-supported agriculture (CSA model … Community-supported agriculture (CSA model) or cropsharing is a system that connects producers and consumers within the food system closer by allowing the consumer to subscribe to the harvest of a certain farm or group of farms. It is an alternative socioeconomic model of agriculture and food distribution that allows the producer and consumer to share the risks of farming. The model is a subcategory of civic agriculture that has an overarching goal of strengthening a sense of community through local markets. In return for subscribing to a harvest, subscribers receive either a weekly or bi-weekly box of produce or other farm goods. This includes in-season fruits, vegetables, and can expand to dried goods, eggs, milk, meat, etc. Typically, farmers try to cultivate a relationship with subscribers by sending weekly letters of what is happening on the farm, inviting them for harvest, or holding an open-farm event. Some CSAs provide for contributions of labor in lieu of a portion of subscription costs. The term CSA is mostly used in the United States and Canada, but a variety of similar production and economic sub-systems are in use worldwide, in Austria and Germany as Solidarische Landwirtschaft ("solidarity farming") and in the UK mainly in the vegetable box scheme.the UK mainly in the vegetable box scheme.)
• Accaparement des terres  + (El Acaparamiento de Tierras es la expresió … El Acaparamiento de Tierras es la expresión en español para referirse al término en inglés Land Grabbing. El acaparamiento de tierras se refiere al nuevo ciclo mundial de apropiación de tierras que se inició en el año 2008 a partir de la crisis alimentaria que se desató durante ese año.alimentaria que se desató durante ese año.)
• Squat  + (El movimiento okupa es un movimiento socia … El movimiento okupa es un movimiento social radical que propugna la ocupación de viviendas o locales deshabitados, temporal o permanentemente, con el fin de utilizarlos como vivienda, guarida, tierras de cultivo, lugar de reunión o centros con fines sociales, políticos y culturales, entre otros. El principal motivo es denunciar y al mismo tiempo responder a las dificultades económicas que los activistas consideran que existen para hacer efectivo, a costa del derecho a la propiedad privada, el derecho a la vivienda. El movimiento okupa agrupa gran variedad de ideologías —en ocasiones asociadas a una determinada tribu urbana— que suelen justificar sus acciones como un gesto de protesta política y social contra la especulación y para defender el derecho a la vivienda frente a las dificultades económicas o sociales. El movimiento okupa también suele defender el aprovechamiento de solares, inmuebles y espacios abandonados y su uso público como centros sociales o culturales. La legislación relativa a okupación de espacios varía mucho de un país a otro. En la mayoría de países, los propietarios legales del bien inmueble cuyos bienes resultan usurpados pueden denunciarla como un delito ordinario; mientras que existen países donde puede haber una legislación que tolere condicionadamente la okupación, o donde existen concesiones temporales por parte de los propietarios a cambio del mantenimiento o alquiler del inmueble. En Holanda, por ejemplo, sólo recientemente se ha propuesto castigar esta práctica.te se ha propuesto castigar esta práctica.)
• Plateforme  + (En informática, plataforma (a veces tambié … En informática, plataforma (a veces también denominada plataforma digital o plataforma informática o plataforma computacional) es un sistema que sirve como base para hacer funcionar determinados módulos de hardware o de software con los que es compatible. Dicho sistema está definido por un estándar alrededor del cual se determina una y una plataforma de software (incluyendo ). Al definir plataformas se establecen los tipos compatibles de arquitectura, sistema operativo, lenguaje de programación o interfaz de usuario. Ejemplos de plataformas son IBM-PC, que incluye las arquitecturas I386 (x86), IA64 o AMD64 (x86-64); Macintosh, que incluye la arquitectura Gecko y PowerPC; y SPARC. Existen programas multiplataforma que permiten ejecutarse en diversas plataformas. También existen emuladores, que son programas que permiten ejecutar desde una plataforma programas de otra emulando su funcionamiento, como por ejemplo UAE, que emula el hardware VICE, un emulador de los legendarios Commodore de mitad de los 80..egendarios Commodore de mitad de los 80..)
• Passage à l'échelle  + (Es un anglicismo que describe la capacidad … Es un anglicismo que describe la capacidad de un negocio o sistema de crecer en magnitud. Aunque la palabra escalabilidad no existe en el diccionario de la RAE el adjetivo más cercano ampliable es de poco uso en telecomunicaciones y en ingeniería informática. La escalabilidad, término tomado en préstamo del idioma inglés, es la propiedad deseable de un sistema, una red o un proceso, que indica su habilidad para reaccionar y adaptarse sin perder calidad, o bien manejar el crecimiento continuo de trabajo de manera fluida, o bien para estar preparado para hacerse más grande sin perder calidad en los servicios ofrecidos. En general, también se podría definir como la capacidad del sistema informático de cambiar su tamaño o configuración para adaptarse a las circunstancias cambiantes. Por ejemplo, una Universidad que establece una red de usuarios por Internet para un edificio de docentes y no solamente quiere que su sistema informático tenga capacidad para acoger a los actuales clientes que son todos profesores, sino también a los clientes que pueda tener en el futuro dado que hay profesores visitantes que requieren de la red por algunas aplicaciones académicas, para esto es necesario implementar soluciones que permitan el crecimiento de la red sin que la posibilidad de su uso y reutilización disminuya o que pueda cambiar su configuración si es necesario. La escalabilidad como propiedad de los sistemas es generalmente difícil de definir, en particular es necesario definir los requisitos específicos para la escalabilidad en esas dimensiones donde se crea que son importantes. Es una edición altamente significativa en sistemas electrónicos, bases de datos, ruteadores y redes. A un sistema cuyo rendimiento es mejorado después de haberle añadido más capacidad hardware, proporcionalmente a la capacidad añadida, se dice que pasa a ser un sistema escalable. dice que pasa a ser un sistema escalable.)
• Souveraineté alimentaire  + (Food sovereignty is a food system in which … Food sovereignty is a food system in which the people who produce, distribute, and consume food also control the mechanisms and policies of food production and distribution. This stands in contrast to the present corporate food regime, in which corporations and market institutions control the global food system. Food sovereignty emphasizes local food economies, sustainable food availability, and center culturally appropriate foods and practices. Changing climates and disrupted foodways disproportionately impact indigenous populations and their access to traditional food sources while contributing to higher rates of certain diseases; for this reason, food sovereignty centers indigenous peoples. These needs have been addressed in recent years by several international organizations, including the United Nations, with several countries adopting food sovereignty policies into law. Critics of food sovereignty activism believe that the system is founded on inaccurate baseline assumptions; disregards the origins of the targeted problems; and is plagued by a lack of consensus for proposed solutions. lack of consensus for proposed solutions.)
• Hacktivisme  + (In Internet activism, hacktivism, or hacti … In Internet activism, hacktivism, or hactivism (a portmanteau of hack and activism), is the use of computer-based techniques such as hacking as a form of civil disobedience to promote a political agenda or social change. With roots in hacker culture and hacker ethics, its ends are often related to free speech, human rights, or freedom of information movements. Hacktivist activities span many political ideals and issues. Freenet, a peer-to-peer platform for censorship-resistant communication, is a prime example of translating political thought and freedom of speech into code. Hacking as a form of activism can be carried out through a network of activists, such as Anonymous and WikiLeaks, or through a singular activist, working in collaboration toward common goals without an overarching authority figure. "Hacktivism" is a controversial term with several meanings. The word was coined to characterize electronic direct action as working toward social change by combining programming skills with critical thinking. But just as hack can sometimes mean cyber crime, hacktivism can be used to mean activism that is malicious, destructive, and undermining the security of the Internet as a technical, economic, and political platform. According to the United States 2020-2022 Counterintelligence Strategy, in addition to state adversaries and transnational criminal organizations, "ideologically motivated entities such as hacktivists, leaktivists, and public disclosure organizations, also pose significant threats".nizations, also pose significant threats".)
• Économie collaborative  + (In capitalism, the sharing economy is a so … In capitalism, the sharing economy is a socio-economic system built around the sharing of resources. It often involves a way of purchasing goods and services that differs from the traditional business model of companies hiring employees to produce products to sell to consumers. It includes the shared creation, production, distribution, trade and consumption of goods and services by different people and organisations. These systems take a variety of forms, often leveraging information technology (particularly digital platforms) to empower individuals, corporations, non-profits and government with information that enables distribution, sharing and reuse of excess capacity in goods and services. There are two main types of sharing economy initiatives: </br>* Non-profit, usually based on the concept of book-lending libraries, in which goods and services are provided for free (or sometimes for a modest subscription). </br>* Commercial, in which a company provides a service to customers for profit.rovides a service to customers for profit.)
• Abondance  + (L'économie de l'abondance est un modèle éc … L'économie de l'abondance est un modèle économique dans lequel tout ou partie des biens, services et informations sont gratuits ou pratiquement gratuits. Une première forme d'économie d'abondance apparaît avec l'économie distributive de Jacques Duboin vers le milieu du XXe siècle, dont l'abondance est le verso « logique ». Une autre forme, contemporaine, est liée à l'abondance en ressources primaires (matière et énergie), en conjonction avec des systèmes automatisés capables de transformer ces ressources en produits et services finis, permettant une production de produits physiques sans nécessiter de labeur humain. Ce modèle a d'abord été évoqué dans la science fiction, principalement anglo-saxonne, avec notamment Pandora's Millions de George O. Smith, ou L'Âge de diamant, de Neal Stephenson. Il s'agit aujourd'hui d'une notion très répandue, spécialement dans les univers post-humains ou post-singularistes. Dans le monde réel, de nombreuses personnes considèrent que le mouvement du logiciel libre constitue d'ores et déjà une économie de l'abondance. Richard Stallman, fondateur de la fondation GNU, et une des figures les plus influentes du mouvement du logiciel libre parle de ce dernier comme d'une première étape vers l'économie de l'abondance dans le manifeste GNU (appelée dans cette traduction « après-pénurie », traduction littérale du terme anglais « post-scarcity ») . Dans la même lignée, un ensemble de projets de matériel libre (open hardware) tente de reproduire ce succès dans le monde matériel, en s'appuyant sur des techniques d'impression 3D ou sur des fablabs. Ce domaine est cependant plus jeune et moins mature que celui du logiciel libre, ce qui n'a pas empêché le gouvernement américain de s'y intéresser et de chercher à accompagner le mieux possible le mouvement.ccompagner le mieux possible le mouvement.)
• Wikidata 1  + (La Terra è il terzo pianeta in ordine di d … La Terra è il terzo pianeta in ordine di distanza dal Sole e il più grande dei pianeti terrestri del sistema solare, sia per massa sia per diametro. Sulla sua superficie, si trova acqua in tutti e tre gli stati di aggregazione (solido, liquido e gassoso) e un'atmosfera composta in prevalenza da azoto e ossigeno che, insieme al campo magnetico che avvolge il pianeta, protegge la Terra dai raggi cosmici e dalle radiazioni solari. Essendo l'unico corpo planetario del sistema solare adatto a sostenere la vita come concepita e conosciuta dagli esseri umani, è l'unico luogo nel quale vivono tutte le specie viventi conosciute. Dopo l'impresa di Jurij Gagarin è conosciuta con l'epiteto di "pianeta azzurro", che deriva dalle parole che il primo uomo a poterla guardare dallo spazio ha pronunciato mentre l'osservava. La sua formazione è datata a circa 4,54 miliardi di anni fa. La Terra possiede un satellite naturale chiamato Luna la cui età, stimata analizzando alcuni campioni delle rocce più antiche, è risultata compresa tra 4,29 e 4,56 miliardi di anni. L'asse di rotazione terrestre è inclinato rispetto alla perpendicolare al piano dell'eclittica: questa inclinazione combinata con la rivoluzione della Terra intorno al Sole causa l'alternarsi delle stagioni. Le condizioni atmosferiche primordiali sono state alterate in maniera preponderante dalla presenza di forme di vita che hanno creato un diverso equilibrio ecologico plasmando la superficie del pianeta. Circa il 71% della superficie è coperta da oceani di acqua salata e il restante 29% è rappresentato dai continenti e dalle isole. La superficie esterna è suddivisa in diversi segmenti rigidi detti placche tettoniche che si spostano lungo la superficie in periodi di diversi milioni di anni. La parte interna, attiva dal punto di vista geologico, è composta da uno spesso strato relativamente solido o plastico, denominato mantello, e da un nucleo diviso a sua volta in nucleo esterno, dove si genera il campo magnetico, e nucleo interno solido, costituito principalmente da ferro e nichel. Tutto ciò che riguarda la composizione della parte interna della Terra resta comunque una teoria indiretta ovvero mancante di verifica e osservazione diretta. Importanti sono le influenze esercitate sulla Terra dallo spazio esterno. Infatti la Luna è all'origine del fenomeno delle maree, stabilizza lo spostamento dell'asse terrestre e ha lentamente modificato la lunghezza del periodo di rotazione del pianeta rallentandolo; un bombardamento di comete durante le fasi primordiali ha giocato un ruolo fondamentale nella formazione degli oceani e in un periodo successivo alcuni impatti di asteroidi hanno provocato significativi cambiamenti delle caratteristiche della superficie e ne hanno alterato la vita presente. Il simbolo astronomico della Terra è un cerchio con all'interno una croce e occasionalmente anche : la linea orizzontale rappresenta l'equatore e quella verticale un meridiano.'equatore e quella verticale un meridiano.)
• Wikidata 1  + (La Tierra (del latín Terra, deidad romana … La Tierra (del latín Terra, deidad romana equivalente a Gea, diosa griega de la feminidad y la fecundidad) es un planeta del sistema solar que gira alrededor de su estrella —el Sol— en la tercera órbita más interna. Es el más denso y el quinto mayor de los ocho planetas del sistema solar. También es el mayor de los cuatro terrestres o rocosos. La Tierra se formó hace aproximadamente 4550 millones de años y la vida surgió unos mil millones de años después. Es el hogar de millones de especies, incluidos los seres humanos y actualmente el único cuerpo astronómico donde se conoce la existencia de vida. La atmósfera y otras condiciones abióticas han sido alteradas significativamente por la biosfera del planeta, favoreciendo la proliferación de organismos aerobios, así como la formación de una capa de ozono que junto con el campo magnético terrestre bloquean la radiación solar dañina, permitiendo así la vida en la Tierra. Las propiedades físicas de la Tierra, la historia geológica y su órbita han permitido que la vida siga existiendo. Se estima que el planeta seguirá siendo capaz de sustentar vida durante otros 500 millones de años, ya que según las previsiones actuales, pasado ese tiempo la creciente luminosidad del Sol terminará causando la extinción de la biosfera. La superficie terrestre o corteza está dividida en varias placas tectónicas que se deslizan sobre el magma durante periodos de varios millones de años. La superficie está cubierta por continentes e islas; estos poseen varios lagos, ríos y otras fuentes de agua, que junto con los océanos de agua salada que representan cerca del 71 % de la superficie constituyen la hidrósfera. No se conoce ningún otro planeta con este equilibrio de agua líquida, que es indispensable para cualquier tipo de vida conocida. Los polos de la Tierra están cubiertos en su mayoría de hielo sólido (indlandsis de la Antártida) o de banquisas (casquete polar ártico). El interior del planeta es geológicamente activo, con una gruesa capa de manto relativamente sólido, un núcleo externo líquido que genera un campo magnético, y un sólido núcleo interior compuesto por aproximadamente un 88 % de hierro. La Tierra interactúa gravitatoriamente con otros objetos en el espacio, especialmente el Sol y la Luna. En la actualidad, la Tierra completa una órbita alrededor del Sol cada vez que realiza 366,26 giros sobre su eje, lo cual es equivalente a 365,26 días solares o un año sideral. El eje de rotación de la Tierra se encuentra inclinado 23,4° con respecto a la perpendicular a su plano orbital, lo que produce las variaciones estacionales en la superficie del planeta con un período de un año tropical (365,24 días solares). La Tierra posee un único satélite natural, la Luna, que comenzó a orbitar la Tierra hace 4530 millones de años; esta produce las mareas, estabiliza la inclinación del eje terrestre y reduce gradualmente la velocidad de rotación del planeta. Hace aproximadamente 3800 a 4100 millones de años, durante el llamado bombardeo intenso tardío, numerosos asteroides impactaron en la Tierra, causando significativos cambios en la mayor parte de su superficie. Tanto los minerales del planeta como los productos de la biosfera aportan recursos que se utilizan para sostener a la población humana mundial. Sus habitantes están agrupados en unos 200 estados soberanos independientes, que interactúan a través de la diplomacia, los viajes, el comercio y la acción militar. Las culturas humanas han desarrollado muchas ideas sobre el planeta, incluida la personificación de una deidad, la creencia en una Tierra plana o en la Tierra como centro del universo, y una perspectiva moderna del mundo como un entorno integrado que requiere administración.rno integrado que requiere administración.)
• Agriculture urbaine  + (La agricultura urbana, también conocida co … La agricultura urbana, también conocida como periurbana (esto es cultivada en el entorno inmediato de las ciudades, a menudo en terrenos calificados o previstos para el crecimiento de la ciudad o la dotación de equipamientos o infraestructuras), es la práctica de la agricultura con cultivos dentro del área urbana. La tierra usada para las huertas urbanas puede ser privada, pública o residencial en espacios como balcones, paredes, techos de edificios, calles públicas o márgenes y antiguos sotos deforestados de los ríos. En muchas ocasiones la agricultura se practica en terrenos ocupados, de propiedades públicas o privadas en estado de abandono. La agricultura urbana se realiza para actividades de producción de alimentos. Contribuye a la soberanía alimentaria y a proporción de alimentos seguros de dos maneras: incrementando la cantidad de alimentos disponibles para los habitantes de ciudades, y en segundo lugar provee verduras y frutas frescas para los consumidores urbanos. Debido a que promueve el ahorro de energía, la producción local de alimentos, la agricultura urbana y periurbana son actividades de sostenibilidad. Puede sin embargo originar problemas y conflictos sociales en el caso de utilización de terrenos privados abandonados para la ubicación de "huertos familiares" clandestinos. Estas actuaciones incontroladas pueden también plantear problemas derivados de la falta de calidad de las aguas utilizadas para el riego, a menudo aguas residuales. Requiere además de un tipo de gestión que va más allá de los agronómico o incluso lo social, pues pasa a ser un aspecto de la .social, pues pasa a ser un aspecto de la .)
• Pollution  + (La contaminación ambiental o polución es l … La contaminación ambiental o polución es la introducción de sustancias u otros elementos físicos en un medio, que provocan que este sea inseguro o no apto para su uso. El medio puede ser un ecosistema, un medio físico o un ser vivo. El contaminante puede ser una sustancia química o energía (como sonido, calor, luz o radiactividad). Es siempre una alteración negativa del estado natural del medio ambiente y, por lo general, se produce como consecuencia de la actividad humana considerándose una forma de impacto ambiental. La contaminación puede clasificarse según el tipo de fuente de donde proviene, o por la forma de contaminante que emite o medio que contamina. Existen muchos agentes contaminantes, entre ellos las sustancias químicas (como plaguicidas, cianuro, herbicidas y otros), los residuos urbanos, el petróleo o las radiaciones ionizantes. Todos estos pueden producir enfermedades, daños en los ecosistemas o el medioambiente. Además existen muchos contaminantes gaseosos que juegan un papel importante en diferentes fenómenos atmosféricos, como la generación de lluvia ácida, el debilitamiento de la capa de ozono y el cambio climático. Hay muchas formas de combatir la contaminación, así como legislaciones internacionales que regulan las emisiones contaminantes de los países que se adhieren a estas políticas. La contaminación está generalmente ligada al desarrollo económico y social. Actualmente muchas organizaciones internacionales como la ONU ubican al desarrollo sostenible como una de las formas de proteger al medioambiente para las actuales y futuras generaciones. En 2015, la contaminación causó la muerte a más de 9 millones de personas.la muerte a más de 9 millones de personas.)
• Garrigue  + (La garriga es un tipo de ecorregión compue … La garriga es un tipo de ecorregión compuesta por formaciones vegetales que surgen en los biomas de los bosques mediterráneos. Estas formaciones son el resultado de la degradación del chaparral y otras comunidades vegetales como bosques de quercineas provocadas por la acción del hombre: el sobrepastoreo y el fuego.Es un hábitat degradado que en ocasiones sustituye a los encinares y otros robledales quemados o talados. El nombre deriva de la palabra francesa tomada del occitano garric, que en la lengua de Oc designa a una de las especies vegetales más comunes: Quercus coccifera, llamado Chêne des garrigues (roble de garriga) en francés. La garriga cubre los sustratos calizos y puede también colonizar afloramientos rocosos. El término chaparral proviene de chaparro: mata de roble enano de muchas ramas y poca altura, que a su vez viene del vasco txaparro, con el mismo significado. En España existe una comarca en la provincia catalana de Lérida denominada Las Garrigas, cuyo nombre hace referencia a esta formación.o nombre hace referencia a esta formación.)
• Polycentrisme  + (La ley policéntrica, en oposición a la ley … La ley policéntrica, en oposición a la ley de monopolio estatal, se refiere a un conjunto de sistemas jurídicos y jurisdicciones competidores y superpuestos, de base asociativa o Derecho privado y no territorial ni público. Siendo una propuesta contemporánea, la idea por sí misma no es reciente; antes de la aparición del Estado moderno, aproximadamente antes del año 1500, las leyes no eran de base territorial, sino más bien basadas en el parentesco, la raza, la zona de competencia (por ejemplo, el derecho religioso, , ley mercante), y así sucesivamente. El Imperio romano, por ejemplo, tenía el derecho romano para los romanos, pero en general dejaba los sistemas jurídicos nativos para los no romanos. La teoría policéntrica comparte la definición sobre la ley de Lon F. Fuller: [...] la empresa de someter la conducta humana al gobierno de las normas. A diferencia de la mayoría de la teorías modernas sobre la ley, esta visión trata a la ley como una actividad y considera un sistema jurídico como el producto de un esfuerzo sostenido intencionado. La moralidad de la ley, 1964 Ley, de manera definida, es legislación. Y si la ley es libre de ser creada por todo el mundo a través de contratos mutuos -no sólo por legisladores, abogados, funcionarios encargados de hacer cumplir la ley- entonces es posible (y para los teóricos policéntricos deseable) que muchos sistemas jurídicos diferentes coexistan.s sistemas jurídicos diferentes coexistan.)
• Participation  + (La participación política es el conjunto d … La participación política es el conjunto de acciones llevadas a cabo por los ciudadanos que no están necesariamente involucrados en la política de forma directa, y cuya acción pretende influir en el proceso político y en el resultado del mismo. En otras palabras, la participación política describe , directas o indirectas que realizan los ciudadanos para influir en las decisiones o en la elección de los gobernantes y se puede llevar a cabo de forma convencional, por ejemplo, la participación electoral y el activismo partidario o de forma no convencional como las actividades de protesta y el contacto con las autoridades. Para comprender la idea de participación política, primero se ha de plantear el concepto de política, que para este caso, se podría describir como el mecanismo social de resolución de conflictos entre colectivos con intereses diferentes, donde un mayor grado de complejidad social acarrearía un número mayor de intereses distintos. Partiendo de esta explicación, el político sería el individuo encargado de llevar a cabo acuerdos entre intereses confrontados con el fin de encontrar una solución común a todos ellos, o en su defecto, buscar una forma de que estos no perjudiquen al orden y al sistema político. El político, por tanto, es aquel que resuelve los conflictos mediante el manejo de voluntades para lograr o alcanzar un bien común para todos. Dentro de este contexto, la participación política y la participación ciudadana se encuentran relacionadas. Vinculado a la participación ciudadana está el compromiso que consiste en trabajar para promover la calidad de vida de la comunidad mediante procesos políticos y no políticos e involucra el desarrollo de conocimientos como los derechos y obligaciones de los ciudadanos, habilidades para comunicar y difundir opiniones, valores como la responsabilidad y compromiso y en conjunto con la motivación hacer esta diferencia.o con la motivación hacer esta diferencia.)
• Accès libre  + (Le libre accès (anglais : open access) est … Le libre accès (anglais : open access) est la mise à disposition en ligne de contenus numériques, qui peuvent eux-mêmes être soit libres (Creative Commons, etc.), soit sous un des régimes de propriété intellectuelle. Le libre accès est principalement utilisé pour les articles de revues de recherche universitaires sélectionnés par des pairs. On devrait, en réalité, distinguer le libre accès et l'accès ouvert (anglais : gratis open access), afin de distinguer plus nettement ce qui est, respectivement, en accès gratuit et libre, parce que soumis à une licence libre, et ce qui est « simplement » en accès gratuit pour l'internaute. Le libre accès peut, en théorie, inclure l'accès aux données afin de permettre l'exploration de données, mais ce n'est en général pas le cas. Dans Qu'est-ce que l'accès ouvert?, Peter Suber écrit: « L'idée de base de l'accès ouvert est simple: faire en sorte que la littérature scientifique soit disponible en ligne sans barrières liées au prix et sans la plupart des contraintes dues à des autorisations. » Il existe deux types de libre accès (à ne pas confondre avec l'accès libre) avec de nombreuses variations. </br>* Dans la publication en libre accès, également connue comme la voie « dorée » du libre accès (anglais : gold open access), les revues rendent leurs articles directement et immédiatement accessibles au public. Ces publications s'appellent des « revues en accès ouvert » (anglais : « open access journals »). En 2014, 17 % des articles scientifiques (y compris de sciences humaines) publiés dans le monde l'étaient selon ce modèle (la proportion n'était que de 14 % en 2012). Un exemple de publication en libre accès est la revue Public Library of Science, qui utilise le modèle de financement dit « auteur-payeur ». </br>* En ce qui concerne le libre accès par auto-archivage, aussi appelée la voie « verte » du libre accès, les auteurs déposent des copies de leurs articles sur une archive ouverte. Un des principaux partisans de la voie « verte » est Stevan Harnad, et cela depuis 1994. Le libre accès est actuellement à l'origine de beaucoup de discussions entre universitaires, bibliothécaires, administrateurs d'universités, éditeurs scientifiques et politiciens. Il existe un désaccord substantiel sur le concept de libre accès, avec un grand débat autour de sa rémunération économique.[réf. nécessaire] En 2019, selon une étude, 31 % des 71 millions d’articles publiés entre 1950 et octobre 2019 sont en libre accès. Les auteurs prédisent que 44 % de tous les articles seront en libre accès en 2025.es articles seront en libre accès en 2025.)
• Linux  + (Linux ou GNU/Linux est une famille de syst … Linux ou GNU/Linux est une famille de systèmes d'exploitation open source de type Unix fondé sur le noyau Linux, créé en 1991 par Linus Torvalds. De nombreuses distributions Linux ont depuis vu le jour et constituent un important vecteur de popularisation du mouvement du logiciel libre. Si à l'origine, Linux a été développé pour les ordinateurs compatibles PC, il n'a jamais équipé qu'une très faible part des ordinateurs personnels. Mais le noyau Linux, accompagné ou non des logiciels GNU, est également utilisé par d'autres types de systèmes informatiques, notamment les serveurs, téléphones portables, systèmes embarqués ou encore superordinateurs. Le système d'exploitation pour téléphones portables Android qui utilise le noyau Linux mais pas GNU, équipe aujourd'hui 85 % des tablettes tactiles et smartphones.5 % des tablettes tactiles et smartphones.)
• Accès libre  + (Open access (OA) is a set of principles an … Open access (OA) is a set of principles and a range of practices through which research outputs are distributed online, free of access charges or other barriers. With open access strictly defined (according to the 2001 definition), or libre open access, barriers to copying or reuse are also reduced or removed by applying an open license for copyright. The main focus of the open access movement is "peer reviewed research literature". Historically, this has centered mainly on print-based academic journals. Whereas non-open access journals cover publishing costs through access tolls such as subscriptions, site licenses or pay-per-view charges, open-access journals are characterised by funding models which do not require the reader to pay to read the journal's contents, relying instead on author fees or on public funding, subsidies and sponsorships. Open access can be applied to all forms of published research output, including peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed academic journal articles, conference papers, theses, book chapters, monographs, research reports and images. Since the revenue of most open access journals is earned from publication fees charged to the authors, OA publishers are motivated to increase their profits by accepting low-quality papers and by not performing thorough peer review. On the other hand, the prices for OA publications in the most prestigious journals have exceeded 5,000 US$, making such publishing model unaffordable to a large number of researchers. This increase in publishing cost has been called the "Open-Access Sequel to [the] Serials Crisis".en-Access Sequel to [the] Serials Crisis".)
• Innovation ouverte  + (Open innovation is a term used to promote … Open innovation is a term used to promote an information age mindset toward innovation that runs counter to the secrecy and silo mentality of traditional corporate research labs. The benefits and driving forces behind increased openness have been noted and discussed as far back as the 1960s, especially as it pertains to interfirm cooperation in R&D. Use of the term 'open innovation' in reference to the increasing embrace of external cooperation in a complex world has been promoted in particular by Henry Chesbrough, adjunct professor and faculty director of the Center for Open Innovation of the Haas School of Business at the University of California, and Maire Tecnimont Chair of Open Innovation at Luiss. The term was originally referred to as "a paradigm that assumes that firms can and should use external ideas as well as internal ideas, and internal and external paths to market, as the firms look to advance their technology". More recently, it is defined as "a distributed innovation process based on purposively managed knowledge flows across organizational boundaries, using pecuniary and non-pecuniary mechanisms in line with the organization's business model". This more recent definition acknowledges that open innovation is not solely firm-centric: it also includes creative consumers and communities of user innovators. The boundaries between a firm and its environment have become more permeable; innovations can easily transfer inward and outward between firms and other firms and between firms and creative consumers, resulting in impacts at the level of the consumer, the firm, an industry, and society. Because innovations tend to be produced by outsiders and founders in startups, rather than existing organizations, the central idea behind open innovation is that, in a world of widely distributed knowledge, companies cannot afford to rely entirely on their own research, but should instead buy or license processes or inventions (i.e. patents) from other companies. This is termed inbound open innovation. In addition, internal inventions not being used in a firm's business should be taken outside the company (e.g. through licensing, joint ventures or spin-offs). This is called outbound open innovation. The open innovation paradigm can be interpreted to go beyond just using external sources of innovation such as customers, rival companies, and academic institutions, and can be as much a change in the use, management, and employment of intellectual property as it is in the technical and research driven generation of intellectual property. In this sense, it is understood as the systematic encouragement and exploration of a wide range of internal and external sources for innovative opportunities, the integration of this exploration with firm capabilities and resources, and the exploitation of these opportunities through multiple channels. In addition, as open innovation explores a wide range of internal and external sources, it could be not just analyzed in the level of company, but also it can be analyzed at inter-organizational level, intra-organizational level, extra-organizational and at industrial, regional and society (Bogers et al., 2017).l, regional and society (Bogers et al., 2017).)