Rechercher par propriété

Cette page fournit une simple interface de navigation pour trouver des entités décrites par une propriété et une valeur nommée. D’autres interfaces de recherche disponibles comprennent la page recherche de propriété, et le constructeur de requêtes « ask ».

Liste de résultats

• Bien commun  + (In philosophy, economics, and political sc … In philosophy, economics, and political science, the common good (also commonwealth, general welfare, or public benefit) is either what is shared and beneficial for all or most members of a given community, or alternatively, what is achieved by citizenship, collective action, and active participation in the realm of politics and public service. The concept of the common good differs significantly among philosophical doctrines. Early conceptions of the common good were set out by Ancient Greek philosophers, including Aristotle and Plato. One understanding of the common good rooted in Aristotle's philosophy remains in common usage today, referring to what one contemporary scholar calls the "good proper to, and attainable only by, the community, yet individually shared by its members." The concept of common good developed through the work of political theorists, moral philosophers, and public economists, including Thomas Aquinas, Niccolò Machiavelli, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, James Madison, Adam Smith, Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, John Maynard Keynes, John Rawls, and many other thinkers. In contemporary economic theory, a common good is any good which is rivalrous yet non-excludable, while the common good, by contrast, arises in the subfield of welfare economics and refers to the outcome of a social welfare function. Such a social welfare function, in turn, would be rooted in a moral theory of the good (such as utilitarianism). Social choice theory aims to understand processes by which the common good may or may not be realized in societies through the study of collective decision rules. Public choice theory applies microeconomic methodology to the study of political science in order to explain how private interests affect political activities and outcomes. affect political activities and outcomes.)
• Énergie  + (In physics, energy (from Ancient Greek: ἐν … In physics, energy (from Ancient Greek: ἐνέργεια, enérgeia, “activity”) is the quantitative property that is to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of heat and light. Energy is a conserved quantity—the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The unit of measurement for energy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule (J). Common forms of energy include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the potential energy stored by an object (for instance due to its position in a field), the elastic energy stored in a solid object, chemical energy associated with chemical reactions, the radiant energy carried by electromagnetic radiation, and the internal energy contained within a thermodynamic system. All living organisms constantly take in and release energy. Due to mass–energy equivalence, any object that has mass when stationary (called rest mass) also has an equivalent amount of energy whose form is called rest energy, and any additional energy (of any form) acquired by the object above that rest energy will increase the object's total mass just as it increases its total energy. Human civilization requires energy to function, which it gets from energy resources such as fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy. The Earth's climate and ecosystems processes are driven by the energy the planet receives from the Sun (although a small amount is also contributed by geothermal energy).is also contributed by geothermal energy).)
• Connaissance  + (Knowledge can be defined as awareness of f … Knowledge can be defined as awareness of facts or as practical skills, and may also refer to familiarity with objects or situations. Knowledge of facts, also called propositional knowledge, is often defined as true belief that is distinct from opinion or guesswork by virtue of justification. While there is wide agreement among philosophers that propositional knowledge is a form of true belief, many controversies in philosophy focus on justification: whether it is needed at all, how to understand it, and whether something else besides it is needed. These controversies intensified due to a series of thought experiments by Edmund Gettier and have provoked various alternative definitions. Some of them deny that justification is necessary and replace it, for example, with reliability or the manifestation of cognitive virtues. Others contend that justification is needed but formulate additional requirements, for example, that no defeaters of the belief are present or that the person would not have the belief if it was false. Knowledge can be produced in many different ways. The most important source of empirical knowledge is perception, which refers to the usage of the senses. Many theorists also include introspection as a source of knowledge, not of external physical objects, but of one's own mental states. Other sources often discussed include memory, rational intuition, inference, and testimony. According to foundationalism, some of these sources are basic in the sense that they can justify beliefs without depending on other mental states. This claim is rejected by coherentists, who contend that a sufficient degree of coherence among all the mental states of the believer is necessary for knowledge. Many different aspects of knowledge are investigated and it plays a role in various disciplines. It is the primary subject of the field of epistemology, which studies what we know, how we come to know it, and what it means to know something. The problem of the value of knowledge concerns the question of why knowledge is more valuable than mere true belief. Philosophical skepticism is the controversial thesis that we lack any form of knowledge or that knowledge is impossible. Formal epistemology studies, among other things, the rules governing how knowledge and related states behave and in what relations they stand to each other. Science tries to acquire knowledge using the scientific method, which is based on repeatable experimentation, observation, and measurement. Many religions hold that humans should seek knowledge and that God or the divine is the source of knowledge. or the divine is the source of knowledge.)
• Action publique  + (L'action publique désigne l'action de l'ad … L'action publique désigne l'action de l'administration publique. C'est un concept de sociologie politique qui désigne à la fois l'activité de gouvernement, le travail gouvernemental et l'action de gouverner. En sociologie, la notion d'action publique est utilisée à la place de la notion de politique publique pour souligner la complexité de l'action de l'État et plus généralement de l'administration publique. A la différence de la notion de politique publique, la notion d'action publique est employée pour mettre en relief la question de la mise en œuvre des politiques publiques. L'objectif de cette approche, comme dans les science studies, est d'étudier ce que les acteurs font et non pas ce qu'ils disent qu'ils font. Le concept est aussi utilisé dans l'administration. Par exemple, en 2012, le gouvernement de Jean-Marc Ayrault a créé le Secrétariat général pour la modernisation de l'action publique (SGMAP) et en 2017, le gouvernement d'Édouard Philippe a lancé le programme . d'Édouard Philippe a lancé le programme .)
• Industrie agroalimentaire  + (L'agro-industrie est l'ensemble des indust … L'agro-industrie est l'ensemble des industries ayant un lien direct avec l'agriculture. Cela comprend donc l'ensemble des systèmes de productions agricoles et s'étend à toutes les entreprises qui fournissent des biens à l'agriculture (engrais, pesticides, machines) ainsi qu'à celles qui transforment les produits agricoles et les conditionnent en produits commercialisables. En ce sens, le secteur agro-industriel ne se limite pas aux seuls produits alimentaires, domaine exclusif au secteur agroalimentaire, mais englobe aussi tous les secteurs parallèles de valorisation des agroressources : papiers, bioénergies, biomatériaux, cuirs, textiles, huiles essentielles, cosmétiques, tabac, etc..es essentielles, cosmétiques, tabac, etc..)
• Logiciel open source  + (La désignation open source /ˈoʊpən sɔɹs/, … La désignation open source /ˈoʊpən sɔɹs/, ou code source ouvert, s'applique aux logiciels (et s'étend maintenant aux œuvres de l'esprit) dont la licence respecte des critères précisément établis par l'Open Source Initiative, c'est-à-dire les possibilités de libre redistribution, d'accès au code source et de création de travaux dérivés. Mis à la disposition du grand public, ce code source est généralement le résultat d'une collaboration entre programmeurs. Le mouvement open source s'est développé en parallèle du mouvement du logiciel libre qui prône des valeurs philosophiques et politiques de justice, l'open source se focalisant sur des considérations techniques de développement logiciel et ne s'opposant pas à l'utilisation de systèmes intégrés combinant logiciels propriétaires et logiciels open source. Dans la pratique toutefois, la très grande majorité des logiciels open source sont également libres, l'exception la plus notable étant les logiciels pratiquant la tivoïsation. L’open source a déjà investi tous les grands domaines du système d’information des administrations françaises : environnements serveurs, domaines applicatifs, outils d’ingénierie, solutions de réseaux et sécurité. Les solutions open source sont désormais au même rang que les solutions propriétaires dans le paysage des logiciels du secteur public. Les décideurs effectuent d’ailleurs de plus en plus leur choix à partir d’un jugement éclairé, en comparant systématiquement solutions propriétaires et solutions libres.lutions propriétaires et solutions libres.)
• Gestion de l'eau  + (La gestion de l'eau est l'activité qui con … La gestion de l'eau est l'activité qui consiste à protéger, planifier, développer, distribuer et gérer l'utilisation optimale des ressources en eau et des milieux aquatiques, des points de vue qualitatif et quantitatif. Ceci inclut la gestion des risques « quantitatifs » et évènements extrêmes de sécheresse et pénurie, d'inondations et de crues, érosion des sols et du trait de côte, d', notamment liés au changement climatique, à la déforestation et à la destruction des zones humides. S'y ajoute les questions de pollutions telluriques des zones côtières et des mers et océans, par les activités humaines, essentiellement charriées par les fleuves. Axée sur le développement des ressources en eau depuis les années 1970, cette activité se tourne sur leur gestion dans les années 1980 et sur la gestion intégrée des ressources en eau dans les années 1990, cette évolution traduisant la mobilisation du secteur public et privé en faveur du développement durable. En 2017, au moins 196 villes mondiales, soit 1,2 milliard de personnes (20 % de la population) sont considérées comme confrontées à des problèmes de gestion de l’eau selon le CDP (ex. : Miami, Pittsburgh (États-Unis) et Johannesburg (Afrique du Sud), qui dont confrontées à un risque « extrême » d’inondations. Les actions de gestion sont de court, moyen et long termes et pour certaines doivent concerner tout un bassin versant. Elles concernent donc de nombreux acteurs (dont collectivités publiques, entreprises agriculteurs et habitants), entités décisionnelles réunies sous le nom de gouvernance de l'eau. Dans un contexte de marchandisation l'eau est de plus en plus perçue comme une ressource naturelle précieuse et un bien commun à partager avec les autres êtres vivants de la planète ; une ressource limitée et inégalement répartie, à utiliser de manière économe et à dépolluer avant de la rendre au milieu naturel.luer avant de la rendre au milieu naturel.)
• Justice sociale  + (La justice sociale est une construction mo … La justice sociale est une construction morale et politique qui vise à l'égalité des droits et conçoit la nécessité d'une solidarité collective entre les personnes d'une société donnée. L'entrée correspondant à ce terme dans le Dictionnaire des sciences économiques et sociales le fait reposer théoriquement sur deux principes. Soit, un premier principe d'équité, avec lequel il ne faut pas confondre celui de justice, et qui s'entend plutôt comme le principe du « à chacun son dû ». Dans ce cas, la part individuelle revenant à celui qui bénéficie du traitement équitable doit être conforme aux attentes les plus généralement exprimées dans une société à l'égard des autres parts individuelles. Soit, un second principe, dit moral, d'une prémisse d'égalité entre tous les membres composants la société. Dans ce cas, la notion de justice sociale est essentiellement une projection vers une société plus juste, en admettant qu'il y ait toujours des injustices. On peut le voir soit comme une utopie, soit comme une démarche allant vers plus de progressisme. Ce premier partage définitoire permet de tracer plusieurs règles générales d'application de la justice sociale. La justice sociale est dite commutative quand elle est fondée sur l'idée que la pure réciprocité doit exister entre les membres et la société (chacun reçoit en contrepartie mesurée d'un effort fourni). Elle sera, en revanche, qualifiée de distributive, si elle vise à donner à chacun la part qui lui revient pour vivre décemment, en se réservant de préciser quels critères ou catégories seront utilisés pour élaborer cette distribution (économique, sociale, culturelle). Les actions ayant pour objectif de rétablir une justice sociale visent à élaborer un meilleur système de répartitions, où chaque individu a et conserve les mêmes chances de réussite tout au long des situations de sa vie d'individu. Ainsi, on parle parfois d'« égalité des chances ». Les corrections nécessaires peuvent être sociales, financières ou culturelles. La justice sociale peut aussi se définir de manière négative : est injuste ce qui n'est pas acceptable socialement. Par exemple, les inégalités de salaires entre métiers de qualifications différentes sont le plus souvent considérées comme justes, parce qu'elles sont socialement acceptées par la majorité. Il existe une distinction entre justice sociale (ou équité) et égalité. La justice sociale est aussi une notion qui évolue dans le temps, ce qui est juste socialement peut devenir injuste si le contexte change (voir sociologie de la justice sociale). Dans son ouvrage majeur Théorie de la justice de 1971, le libéral John Rawls écrit qu'une société est juste si elle respecte trois principes, dans l'ordre : 1. </br>* garantie des libertés de base égales pour tous ; 2. </br>* égalité des chances ; 3. </br>* maintien des seules inégalités qui profitent aux plus défavorisés.alités qui profitent aux plus défavorisés.)
• Propriété intellectuelle  + (La propriété intellectuelle est le domaine … La propriété intellectuelle est le domaine comportant l'ensemble des droits exclusifs accordés sur des créations intellectuelles.Elle comporte deux branches : </br>* la propriété littéraire et artistique, qui s'applique aux œuvres de l'esprit, est composée du droit d'auteur et des droits voisins ; </br>* la propriété industrielle, qui regroupe elle-même, d'une part, les créations utilitaires, comme le brevet d'invention et le certificat d'obtention végétale ou au contraire un droit de protection sui generis des obtentions végétales, et, d'autre part, les signes distinctifs, notamment la marque commerciale, le nom de domaine et l'appellation d'origine. Elle comprend un droit moral (extra-patrimonial) qui est le seul droit attaché à la personne de l'auteur de l’œuvre qui soit perpétuel, inaliénable et imprescriptible, et qui s'applique donc post mortem, même après que l'œuvre est placée dans le domaine public (soit 70 ans à compter du 1er janvier de l'année suivant la mort de l’auteur). C'est l'œuvre résultante, et sa forme, qui sont protégées, non les idées et les informations qui en sont à l'origine, et qui, elles, restent libres de droit. Ainsi, le « résumé » d'une œuvre écrite, ou la citation d'un titre dans une bibliographie ne sont pas considérés comme un emprunt à ce qui est protégé par le droit d'auteur dans l'œuvre. Certaines personnalités du mouvement du logiciel libre dénoncent l'escroquerie sémantique du concept de « propriété intellectuelle », de même le récent brevetage du vivant a suscité de vives controverses éthiques et juridiques.vives controverses éthiques et juridiques.)
• Développement durable  + (Le développement durable (en anglais : sus … Le développement durable (en anglais : sustainable development, parfois traduit par développement soutenable) est une conception du développement qui s'inscrit dans une perspective de long terme et en intégrant les contraintes écologiques et sociales à l'économie. Selon la définition donnée dans le rapport de la Commission mondiale sur l'environnement et le développement de l'Organisation des Nations unies, dit rapport Brundtland, où cette expression est apparue pour la première fois en 1987, « le développement durable est un développement qui répond aux besoins du présent sans compromettre la capacité des générations futures de répondre aux leurs ». Cette notion s'est imposée à la suite de la prise de conscience progressive, depuis les années 1970, de la finitude écologique de la Terre, liée aux limites planétaires sur le long terme. La notion fait toutefois l'objet de , notamment de la part des tenants de la décroissance, pour lesquels cette notion reste trop liée à celle de la croissance économique, mais aussi de la part de ceux qui y voient un frein au développement.ux qui y voient un frein au développement.)
• Eaux souterraines  + (Les eaux souterraines sont toutes les eaux … Les eaux souterraines sont toutes les eaux se trouvant sous la surface du sol, dans la zone de saturation et en contact direct avec le sol ou le sous-sol. En tant que ressource naturelle vitale et plus ou moins renouvelable et parfois transfrontalières, ces eaux posent des questions juridiques particulières. C'est parfois une source de conflit inter ethnique ou entre pays. Les aquifères souterrains sont la réserve majeure (98 à 99 %)de l'eau douce exploitable sur les terres émergées. L’utilisation de l’eau souterraine se répartit de façon variable d’un pays à l’autre. Les pourcentages d’utilisation, selon les trois catégories, sont les suivants : </br>* 65 % (0 à 97 %) pour l’irrigation; </br>* 25 % (0 à 93 %) pour l'eau potable; </br>* 10 % (0 à 64 %) pour l'industrie. La carte des réserves aquifères connues en 2008 (publiée par l'UNESCO) montre 273 aquifères transfrontaliers (68 en Amérique, 38 en Afrique, 65 en Europe de l'Est, 90 en Europe occidentale et 12 en Asie où le recensement n'était pas terminé). Les aquifères majeurs connus en 2008 étaient en Amérique du Sud et Afrique du Nord. Les grands aquifères d'Afrique centrale sont encore mal explorés et rarement exploitées. La multiplication des pompes électriques et petits systèmes de pompage et forage a fortement augmenté la pression sur les nappes, souvent surexploitées dans les zones habitées et de grandes cultures et parfois déjà pollués. Leur exploitation pose aussi des questions sur nos responsabilités à l'égard des générations futures ou de l'amont vers l'aval (du point de vue du sens de circulation des masses d'eau souterraines, ou de leur alimentation via les bassins versants en surface le cas échéant). Il existe des eaux fossiles non renouvelables aux échelles humaines de temps et des aquifères profonds qui ne sont que très lentement réalimentés.ui ne sont que très lentement réalimentés.)
• Machisme  + (Machismo (/məˈtʃiːzmoʊ, mɑː-, -ˈtʃɪz-/; Sp … Machismo (/məˈtʃiːzmoʊ, mɑː-, -ˈtʃɪz-/; Spanish: [maˈtʃismo]; Portuguese: [maˈʃiʒmu]; from Spanish macho 'male', and -ismo) is the sense of being "manly" and self-reliant, a concept associated with "a strong sense of masculine pride: an exaggerated masculinity". Machismo is a term originating in the early 1930s and 40s best defined as having pride in one’s masculinity. It is associated with "a man's responsibility to provide for, protect, and defend his family". Machismo is strongly and consistently associated with dominance, aggression, exhibition, and nurturance. The correlation to machismo is found to be deeply rooted in family dynamics and culture. The word macho has a long history both in Spain and Portugal, including the Spanish and Portuguese languages. Macho in Portuguese and Spanish is a strictly masculine term, derived from from the Latin mascŭlus, which means "male". It was originally associated with the ideal societal role men were expected to play in their communities, most particularly Iberian language-speaking societies and countries. In addition, due to Mexico's history of conquest, battles and constant bureaucratic struggles, it was expected of men to possess and display bravery, courage, strength, wisdom and leadership. To ser macho (literally, "to be a macho") was an aspiration for all boys. As history shows, men were often in powerful and dominating roles thus portrayed the stereotype of a violent macho man. Thus the origin of machismo serves as an illustration of past history, the struggles that colonial Mexico faced and the evolution of gender stereotypes with time. Machismo is a factor challenged among different groups due to how an ideal man is expected to be portrayed, which builds pressure. Mentally, men may feel the need to take up more opportunities to meet expectations, such as supporting the home, or maintaining employment, leading to increased stress. This may also take a toll as physically well straining to be strong and overexerting the body, or the opposite of putting on weight by not having the desired physique and feeling inferior. Furthermore, researchers suggest that machismo can potray the supremacy or dominance that a man feels he has over a woman due to cultural and societal factors.oman due to cultural and societal factors.)
• Magna carta  + (Magna Carta Libertatum (Medieval Latin for … Magna Carta Libertatum (Medieval Latin for "Great Charter of Freedoms"), commonly called Magna Carta (also Magna Charta; "Great Charter"), is a royal charter of rights agreed to by King John of England at Runnymede, near Windsor, on 15 June 1215. First drafted by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Cardinal Stephen Langton, to make peace between the unpopular king and a group of rebel barons, it promised the protection of church rights, protection for the barons from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and limitations on feudal payments to the Crown, to be implemented through a council of 25 barons. Neither side stood behind their commitments, and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III, leading to the First Barons' War. After John's death, the regency government of his young son, Henry III, reissued the document in 1216, stripped of some of its more radical content, in an unsuccessful bid to build political support for their cause. At the end of the war in 1217, it formed part of the peace treaty agreed at Lambeth, where the document acquired the name "Magna Carta", to distinguish it from the smaller Charter of the Forest which was issued at the same time. Short of funds, Henry reissued the charter again in 1225 in exchange for a grant of new taxes. His son, Edward I, repeated the exercise in 1297, this time confirming it as part of England's statute law. The charter became part of English political life and was typically renewed by each monarch in turn, although as time went by and the fledgling Parliament of England passed new laws, it lost some of its practical significance. At the end of the 16th century, there was an upsurge in interest in Magna Carta. Lawyers and historians at the time believed that there was an ancient English constitution, going back to the days of the Anglo-Saxons, that protected individual English freedoms. They argued that the Norman invasion of 1066 had overthrown these rights, and that Magna Carta had been a popular attempt to restore them, making the charter an essential foundation for the contemporary powers of Parliament and legal principles such as habeas corpus. Although this historical account was badly flawed, jurists such as Sir Edward Coke used Magna Carta extensively in the early 17th century, arguing against the divine right of kings. Both James I and his son Charles I attempted to suppress the discussion of Magna Carta. The political myth of Magna Carta and its protection of ancient personal liberties persisted after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 until well into the 19th century. It influenced the early American colonists in the Thirteen Colonies and the formation of the United States Constitution, which became the supreme law of the land in the new republic of the United States. Research by Victorian historians showed that the original 1215 charter had concerned the medieval relationship between the monarch and the barons, rather than the rights of ordinary people, but the charter remained a powerful, iconic document, even after almost all of its content was repealed from the statute books in the 19th and 20th centuries. Four clauses of the original 1215 charter (1 (part), 13, 39 and 40) remain in force in England and Wales (as clauses 1, 9 and 29 of the 1297 statute). Magna Carta still forms an important symbol of liberty today, often cited by politicians and campaigners, and is held in great respect by the British and American legal communities, Lord Denning describing it as "the greatest constitutional document of all times—the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot". In the 21st century, four exemplifications of the original 1215 charter remain in existence, two at the British Library, one at Lincoln Castle and one at Salisbury Cathedral. There are also a handful of the subsequent charters in public and private ownership, including copies of the 1297 charter in both the United States and Australia. Although scholars refer to the 63 numbered "clauses" of Magna Carta, this is a modern system of numbering, introduced by Sir William Blackstone in 1759; the original charter formed a single, long unbroken text. The four original 1215 charters were displayed together at the British Library for one day, 3 February 2015, to mark the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta.mark the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta.)
• Ressources naturelles  + (Natural resources are resources that are d … Natural resources are resources that are drawn from nature and used with few modifications. This includes the sources of valued characteristics such as commercial and industrial use, aesthetic value, scientific interest and cultural value. On Earth, it includes sunlight, atmosphere, water, land, all minerals along with all vegetation, and wildlife. Natural resources is a part of humanity's natural heritage or protected in nature reserves. Particular areas (such as the rainforest in Fatu-Hiva) often feature biodiversity and geodiversity in their ecosystems. Natural resources may be classified in different ways. Natural resources are materials and components (something that can be used) that can be found within the environment. Every man-made product is composed of natural resources (at its fundamental level). A natural resource may exist as a separate entity such as fresh water, air, as well as any living organism such as a fish, or it may be transformed by extractivist industries into an economically useful form that must be processed to obtain the resource such as metal ores, rare-earth elements, petroleum, timber and most forms of energy. Some resources are renewable resource, which means that they can be used at a certain rate and natural processes will restore them, whereas many extractive industries rely heavily on non-renewable resources that can only be extracted once. Natural-resource allocations can be at the center of many economic and political confrontations both within and between countries. This is particularly true during periods of increasing scarcity and shortages (depletion and overconsumption of resources). Resource extraction is also a major source of human rights violations and environmental damage. The Sustainable Development Goals and other international development agendas frequently focus on creating more sustainable resource extraction, with some scholars and researchers focused on creating economic models, such as circular economy, that rely less on resource extraction, and more on reuse, recycling and renewable resources that can be sustainably managed.resources that can be sustainably managed.)
• Informations  + (News is information about current events. … News is information about current events. This may be provided through many different media: word of mouth, printing, postal systems, broadcasting, electronic communication, or through the testimony of observers and witnesses to events. News is sometimes called "hard news" to differentiate it from soft media. Common topics for news reports include war, government, politics, education, health, the environment, economy, business, fashion, entertainment, and sport, as well as quirky or unusual events. Government proclamations, concerning royal ceremonies, laws, taxes, public health, and criminals, have been dubbed news since ancient times. Technological and social developments, often driven by government communication and espionage networks, have increased the speed with which news can spread, as well as influenced its content. Throughout history, people have transported new information through oral means. Having developed in China over centuries, newspapers became established in Europe during the early modern period. In the 20th century, radio and television became an important means of transmitting news. Whilst in the 21st, the internet has also begun to play a similar role.net has also begun to play a similar role.)
• Logiciel open source  + (Open-source software (OSS) is computer sof … Open-source software (OSS) is computer software that is released under a license in which the copyright holder grants users the rights to use, study, change, and distribute the software and its source code to anyone and for any purpose. Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. Open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration, meaning any capable user is able to participate online in development, making the number of possible contributors indefinite. The ability to examine the code facilitates public trust in the software. Open-source software development can bring in diverse perspectives beyond those of a single company. A 2008 report by the Standish Group stated that adoption of open-source software models has resulted in savings of about $60 billion per year for consumers. Open source code can be used for studying and allows capable end users to adapt software to their personal needs in a similar way user scripts and custom style sheets allow for web sites, and eventually publish the modification as a fork for users with similar preferences, and directly submit possible improvements as pull requests.it possible improvements as pull requests.)
• Permaculture  + (Permaculture is an approach to land manage … Permaculture is an approach to land management and settlement design that adopts arrangements observed in flourishing natural ecosystems. It includes a set of design principles derived using whole-systems thinking. It applies these principles in fields such as regenerative agriculture, town planning, rewilding, and community resilience. Permaculture originally came from "permanent agriculture", but was later adjusted to mean "permanent culture", incorporating social aspects. The term was coined in 1978 by Bill Mollison and David Holmgren, who formulated the concept in opposition to modern industrialized methods instead adopting a more traditional or "natural" approach to agriculture. Permaculture has many branches including ecological design, ecological engineering, regenerative design, environmental design, and construction. It also includes integrated water resources management, sustainable architecture, and regenerative and self-maintained habitat and agricultural systems modeled from natural ecosystems. Permaculture uses creative design processes based on whole-systems thinking, considering all materials and energies in flow that affect or are affected by proposed changes. In practical terms it means that before, for example, modifying overland water flow, one fully considers both upstream and downstream effects in the short and long terms. Or, when looking at a "problem", such as brushy vegetation, one considers how removing or altering it will affect soil and wildlife, and how these interacting forces would evolve over time and space. Permaculture has been criticised as being poorly defined and unscientific. Critics have pushed for less reliance on anecdote and extrapolation from ecological first principles, in favor of peer-reviewed research to substantiate productivity claims and to clarify methodology. Peter Harper from the Centre for Alternative Technology suggests that most of what passes for permaculture has no relevance to real problems.culture has no relevance to real problems.)
• Pirate  + (Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal vi … Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable goods. Those who conduct acts of piracy are called pirates, while the dedicated ships that pirates use are called pirate ships. The earliest documented instances of piracy were in the 14th century BC, when the Sea Peoples, a group of ocean raiders, attacked the ships of the Aegean and Mediterranean civilisations. Narrow channels which funnel shipping into predictable routes have long created opportunities for piracy, as well as for privateering and commerce raiding. Historic examples include the waters of Gibraltar, the Strait of Malacca, Madagascar, the Gulf of Aden, and the English Channel, whose geographic structures facilitated pirate attacks. Privateering uses similar methods to piracy, but the captain acts under orders of the state authorising the capture of merchant ships belonging to an enemy nation, making it a legitimate form of war-like activity by non-state actors. A land-based parallel is the ambushing of travelers by bandits and brigands in highways and mountain passes. While the term can include acts committed in the air, on land (especially across national borders or in connection with taking over and robbing a car or train), or in other major bodies of water or on a shore, in cyberspace, as well as the fictional possibility of space piracy, it generally refers to maritime piracy. It does not normally include crimes committed against people traveling on the same vessel as the perpetrator (e.g. one passenger stealing from others on the same vessel). Piracy or pirating is the name of a specific crime under customary international law and also the name of a number of crimes under the municipal law of a number of states. In the early 21st century, seaborne piracy against transport vessels remains a significant issue (with estimated worldwide losses of US$16 billion per year in 2004), particularly in the waters between the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, off the Somali coast, and also in the Strait of Malacca and Singapore. Currently, pirates armed with automatic weapons, such as assault rifles, and machine guns, grenades and rocket propelled grenades use small motorboats to attack and board ships, a tactic that takes advantage of the small number of crew members on modern cargo vessels and transport ships. They also use larger vessels, known as "mother ships", to supply the smaller motorboats. The international community is facing many challenges in bringing modern pirates to justice, as these attacks often occur in international waters. Some nations have used their naval forces to protect private ships from pirate attacks and to pursue pirates, and some private vessels use armed security guards, high-pressure water cannons, or sound cannons to repel boarders, and use radar to avoid potential threats. A romanticised version of piracy in the Age of Sail has long been a part of Western pop culture. Captain Charles Johnson's A General History of the Pyrates, published in London in 1724, contained biographies of several pirates of the "golden age" and brought them to public attention. Pirates of the era have been further popularised and stereotyped by many subsequent works of fiction, most notably by the novels Treasure Island (1883) and Peter Pan (1911), two film adaptions of Treasure Island (1934 and 1950) and, more recently, by the Pirates of the Caribbean film franchise, which began in 2003.bbean film franchise, which began in 2003.)
• Pollution  + (Pollution is the introduction of contamina … Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light). Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Although environmental pollution can be caused by natural events, the word pollution generally implies that the contaminants have an anthropogenic source – that is, a source created by human activities. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. In 2015, pollution killed nine million people worldwide (one in six deaths). This remained unchanged in 2019, with little real progress against pollution being identifiable. Air pollution accounted for 3⁄4 of these earlier deaths. Major forms of pollution include air pollution, light pollution, litter, noise pollution, plastic pollution, soil contamination, radioactive contamination, thermal pollution, visual pollution, and water pollution.on, visual pollution, and water pollution.)
• Santé publique  + (Public health is "the science and art of p … Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals". Analyzing the determinants of health of a population and the threats it faces is the basis for public health. The public can be as small as a handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city; in the case of a pandemic it may encompass several continents. The concept of health takes into account physical, psychological, and social well-being. Public health is an interdisciplinary field. For example, epidemiology, biostatistics, social sciences and management of health services are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health, health education, health politics, occupational safety, disability, oral health, gender issues in health, and sexual and reproductive health. Public health, together with primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, is part of a country's overall health care system. Public health is implemented through the surveillance of cases and health indicators, and through the promotion of healthy behaviors. Common public health initiatives include promotion of hand-washing and breastfeeding, delivery of vaccinations, promoting ventilation and improved air quality both indoors and outdoors, suicide prevention, smoking cessation, obesity education, increasing healthcare accessibility and distribution of condoms to control the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. There is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed countries and developing countries, as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained healthcare workers, monetary resources, or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even a basic level of medical care and disease prevention. A major public health concern in developing countries is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty coupled with governments' reluctance in implementing public health policies. From the beginnings of human civilization, communities promoted health and fought disease at the population level. In complex, pre-industrialized societies, interventions designed to reduce health risks could be the initiative of different stakeholders, such as army generals, the clergy or rulers. Great Britain became a leader in the development of public health initiatives, beginning in the 19th century, due to the fact that it was the first modern urban nation worldwide. The public health initiatives that began to emerge initially focused on sanitation (for example, the Liverpool and London sewerage systems), control of infectious diseases (including vaccination and quarantine) and an evolving infrastructure of various sciences, e.g. statistics, microbiology, epidemiology, sciences of engineering.gy, epidemiology, sciences of engineering.)
• Recherche  + (Research is "creative and systematic work … Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge". It involves the collection, organization and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular attentiveness to controlling sources of bias and error. These activities are characterized by a to accounting and controlling for biases in t. A research project may be an expansion on past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, and the research and development (R&D) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms of research: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, life, technological, etc. The scientific study of research practices is known as meta-research. research practices is known as meta-research.)
• Principe de subsidiarité  + (Subsidiarity is a principle of social orga … Subsidiarity is a principle of social organization that holds that social and political issues should be dealt with at the most immediate or local level that is consistent with their resolution. The Oxford English Dictionary defines subsidiarity as "the principle that a central authority should have a subsidiary function, performing only those tasks which cannot be performed at a more local level". The concept is applicable in the fields of government, political science, neuropsychology, cybernetics, management and in military command (mission command). The OED adds that the term "subsidiarity" in English follows the early German usage of "Subsidiarität". More distantly, it is derived from the Latin verb subsidio (to aid or help), and the related noun subsidium (aid or assistance). The development of the concept of subsidiarity has roots in the natural law philosophy of Thomas Aquinas and was mediated by the social scientific theories of Luigi Taparelli, SJ, in his 1840–43 natural law treatise on the human person in society. In that work, Taparelli established the criteria of just social order, which he referred to as "hypotactical right" and which came to be termed subsidiarity following German influences. Another origin of the concept is in the writings of Calvinist law-philosopher Johannes Althaus who used the word "subsidia" in 1603. As a principle of just social order, it became one of the pillars of modern Catholic social teaching. Subsidiarity is a general principle of European Union law. In the United States of America, Article VI, Paragraph 2 of the constitution of the United States is known as the Supremacy Clause. This establishes that the federal constitution, and federal law generally, take precedence over state laws, and even state constitutions. The principle of States' Rights is sometimes interpreted as being established by the Tenth Amendment, which says that "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."he States respectively, or to the people.")
• Technologie  + (Technology is the application of knowledge … Technology is the application of knowledge to reach practical goals in a specifiable and reproducible way. The word technology may also mean the product of such an endeavor. The use of technology is widely prevalent in medicine, science, industry, communication, transportation, and daily life. Technologies include physical objects like utensils or machines and intangible tools such as software. Many technological advancements have led to societal changes. The earliest known technology is the stone tool, used in the prehistoric era, followed by fire use, which contributed to the growth of the human brain and the development of language in the Ice Age. The invention of the wheel in the Bronze Age enabled wider travel and the creation of more complex machines. Recent technological developments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet have lowered communication barriers and ushered in the knowledge economy. While technology contributes to economic development and human prosperity, it can also have negative impacts like pollution or resource depletion, or cause social harms like technological unemployment caused by automation. As a result, philosophical and political debates have arisen over the role and use of technology, the ethics of technology, and the mitigation of technology's potential downsides. Historical and contemporary movements like neo-Luddism and anarcho-primitivism criticize technology's pervasiveness, while adherents to transhumanism and techno-progressivism actively support technological change, viewing it as emancipatory. Many negative impacts of technology can be mitigated through technological innovations like renewable energy in transportation and industry, genetically modified crops to address soil depletion, and space exploration to mitigate global catastrophic risks.ion to mitigate global catastrophic risks.)
• Logiciel libre  + (Un logiciel libre est un logiciel dont l'u … Un logiciel libre est un logiciel dont l'utilisation, l'étude, la modification et la duplication par autrui en vue de sa diffusion sont permises, techniquement et juridiquement, ceci afin de garantir certaines libertés induites, dont le contrôle du programme par l'utilisateur et la possibilité de partage entre individus. Ces droits peuvent être simplement disponibles — cas du domaine public — ou bien établis par une licence, dite « libre », basée sur le droit d'auteur. Les « licences copyleft » garantissent le maintien de ces droits aux utilisateurs même pour les travaux dérivés. Les logiciels libres constituent une alternative à ceux qui ne le sont pas, qualifiés de « propriétaires » ou de « privateurs ». Ces derniers sont alors considérés par une partie de la communauté du logiciel libre comme étant l'instrument d'un pouvoir injuste, en permettant au développeur de contrôler l'utilisateur. Le logiciel libre est souvent confondu à tort avec : </br>* les gratuiciels (freewares) : un gratuiciel est un logiciel gratuit propriétaire, alors qu'un logiciel libre se définit par les libertés accordées à l'utilisateur. Si la nature du logiciel libre facilite et encourage son partage, ce qui tend à le rendre gratuit, elle ne s'oppose pas pour autant à sa rentabilité principalement via des services associés. Les rémunérations sont liées par exemple aux travaux de création, de développement, de mise à disposition et de soutien technique. D'un autre côté les logiciels gratuits ne sont pas nécessairement libres, car leur code source n'est pas systématiquement accessible et leur licence peut ne pas correspondre à la définition du logiciel libre. </br>* l’open source : le logiciel libre, selon son initiateur, est un mouvement social qui repose sur les principes de Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité ; l’open source quant à lui, décrit pour la première fois dans La Cathédrale et le Bazar, s'attache aux avantages d'une méthode de développement au travers de la réutilisation du code source.ravers de la réutilisation du code source.)
• Politiques publiques  + (Une politique publique est un concept de s … Une politique publique est un concept de science politique qui désigne les « interventions d’une autorité investie de puissance publique et de légitimité gouvernementale sur un domaine spécifique de la société ou du territoire ». La sociologie politique utilise ce concept afin d'analyser l'ensemble de ces interventions dans les différentes étapes de leur mise en œuvre, aussi bien que dans leur genèse ou au travers de leurs conséquences (il est alors question de « sociologie de l’action publique »). La science administrative tend plutôt à analyser et à évaluer une politique publique en fonction de sa capacité à atteindre les objectifs qui lui ont été assignés, ainsi qu'en fonction de l'efficacité des moyens déployés. Dans ce cadre, les politiques publiques peuvent également être décrites comme « un ensemble d'actions coordonnées, réalisées par une puissance publique, dans l'optique d'obtenir une modification ou une évolution d'une situation donnée ». Étudier leur impact permet de décrire la capacité qu'a une puissance publique à gérer les attentes et les problèmes propres à la société ou au pan de société concerné(e) et à agir en fonction d'une stratégie publique, de court, moyen ou long terme. Les domaines concernés peuvent être de toute nature : infrastructure, santé, famille, logement, emploi, formation professionnelle, recherche, fonction publique, crise, déficit... L’évaluation des politiques publiques, présentée comme un nouvel outil d’aide à la décision publique, est apparue aux États-Unis dans les années 1960 avant de se développer au Royaume-Uni, dans les pays scandinaves puis dans les autres démocraties occidentales vingt ans plus tard. La Commission européenne en a fait notamment une exigence règlementaire systématique dans le cadre des financements alloués aux États membres à partir des années 1990.ux États membres à partir des années 1990.)

• Politiques publiques  + (Public policy is an institutionalized prop … Public policy is an institutionalized proposal or a decided set of elements like laws, regulations, guidelines, and actions to solve or address relevant and real-world problems, guided by a conception and often implemented by programs. Public policy can be considered to be the sum of government direct and indirect activities and has been conceptualized in a variety of ways. They are created and/or enacted on behalf of the public typically by a government. Sometimes they are made by nonprofit organisations or are made in co-production with communities or citizens, which can include potential experts, scientists, engineers and stakeholders or scientific data, or sometimes use some of their results. They are typically made by policy-makers affiliated with (in democratic polities) currently elected politicians. A popular way of understanding and engaging in public policy is through a series of stages known as "the policy cycle". The characterization of particular stages can vary, but a basic sequence is: agenda setting – formulation – legitimation – implementation – evaluation. Officials considered as policymakers bear responsibility to reflect the interests of a host of different stakeholders. Policy design entails conscious and deliberate effort to define policy aims and map them instrumentally. Academics and other experts in policy studies have developed a range of tools and approaches to help in this task.tools and approaches to help in this task.)

• Licences Creative Commons  + (A Creative Commons (CC) license is one of … A Creative Commons (CC) license is one of several public copyright licenses that enable the free distribution of an otherwise copyrighted "work". A CC license is used when an author wants to give other people the right to share, use, and build upon a work that the author has created. CC provides an author flexibility (for example, they might choose to allow only non-commercial uses of a given work) and protects the people who use or redistribute an author's work from concerns of copyright infringement as long as they abide by the conditions that are specified in the license by which the author distributes the work. There are several types of Creative Commons licenses. Each license differs by several combinations that condition the terms of distribution. They were initially released on December 16, 2002, by Creative Commons, a U.S. non-profit corporation founded in 2001. There have also been five versions of the suite of licenses, numbered 1.0 through 4.0. Released in November 2013, the 4.0 license suite is the most current. While the Creative Commons license was originally grounded in the American legal system, there are now several Creative Commons jurisdiction ports which accommodate international laws. In October 2014, the Open Knowledge Foundation approved the Creative Commons CC BY, CC BY-SA and CC0 licenses as conformant with the "Open Definition" for content and data.he "Open Definition" for content and data.)
• Budget  + (A budget is a calculation plan, usually bu … A budget is a calculation plan, usually but not always financial, for a defined period, often one year or a month. A budget may include anticipated sales volumes and revenues, resource quantities including time, costs and expenses, environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas emissions, other impacts, assets, liabilities and cash flows. Companies, governments, families, and other organizations use budgets to express strategic plans of activities in measurable terms. A budget expresses intended expenditures along with proposals for how to meet them with resources. A budget may express a surplus, providing resources for use at a future time, or a deficit in which expenditures exceed income or other resources.nditures exceed income or other resources.)
• Business Improvement District  + (A business improvement district (BID) is a … A business improvement district (BID) is a defined area within which businesses are required to pay an additional tax (or levy) in order to fund projects within the district's boundaries. The BID is often funded primarily through the levy but can also draw on other public and private funding streams. BIDs may go by other names, such as business improvement area (BIA), business revitalization zone (BRZ), community improvement district (CID), special services area (SSA), or special improvement district (SID). These districts typically fund services which are perceived by some businesses as being inadequately performed by government with its existing tax revenues, such as cleaning streets, providing security, making capital improvements, construction of pedestrian and streetscape enhancements, and marketing the area. The services provided by BIDs are supplemental to those already provided by the municipality. The revenue derives from a tax assessment on commercial property owners, and in some cases, residential property owners.n some cases, residential property owners.)
• Communauté  + (A community is a social unit (a group of l … A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as place, norms, religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a country, village, town, or neighbourhood) or in virtual space through communication platforms. Durable good relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties also define a sense of community, important to their identity, practice, and roles in social institutions such as family, home, work, government, society, or humanity at large. Although communities are usually small relative to personal social ties, "community" may also refer to large group affiliations such as national communities, international communities, and virtual communities. The English-language word "community" derives from the Old French comuneté (Modern French: communauté), which comes from the Latin communitas "community", "public spirit" (from Latin communis, "common"). Human communities may have intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, and risks in common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness.icipants and their degree of cohesiveness.)
• Monnaie complémentaire  + (A complementary currency is a currency or … A complementary currency is a currency or medium of exchange that is not necessarily a national currency, but that is thought of as supplementing or complementing national currencies. Complementary currencies are usually not legal tender and their use is based on agreement between the parties exchanging the currency. According to Jérôme Blanc of Laboratoire d'Économie de la Firme et des Institutions, complementary currencies aim to protect, stimulate or orientate the economy. They may also be used to advance particular social, environmental, or political goals. When speaking about complementary currencies, a number of overlapping and often interchangeable terms are in use: local or community currencies are complementary currencies used within a locality or other form of community (such as business-based or online communities); regional currencies are similar to local currencies, but are used within a larger geographical region; and sectoral currencies are complementary currencies used within a single economic sector, such as education or health care. Many private currencies are complementary currencies issued by private businesses or organizations. Other terms include alternative currency, auxiliary currency, and microcurrency. Mutual credit is a form of alternative currency, and thus any form of lending that does not go through the banking system can be considered a form of alternative currency. Barters are another type of alternative currency. These are actually exchange systems, which trade only items, without the use of any currency whatsoever. Finally, LETS is a special form of barter that trades points for items. One point stands for one worker-hour of work, and is thus a Time-based currency.f work, and is thus a Time-based currency.)
• Plateforme  + (A computing platform or digital platform i … A computing platform or digital platform is an environment in which a piece of software is executed. It may be the hardware or the operating system (OS), even a web browser and associated application programming interfaces, or other underlying software, as long as the program code is executed with it. Computing platforms have different abstraction levels, including a computer architecture, an OS, or runtime libraries. A computing platform is the stage on which computer programs can run. A platform can be seen both as a constraint on the software development process, in that different platforms provide different functionality and restrictions; and as an assistant to the development process, in that they provide low-level functionality ready-made. For example, an OS may be a platform that abstracts the underlying differences in hardware and provides a generic command for saving files or accessing the network.for saving files or accessing the network.)
• Hospitaux  + (A hospital is a health care institution pr … A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment with specialized health science and auxiliary healthcare staff and medical equipment. The best-known type of hospital is the general hospital, which typically has an emergency department to treat urgent health problems ranging from fire and accident victims to a sudden illness. A district hospital typically is the major health care facility in its region, with many beds for intensive care and additional beds for patients who need long-term care. Specialized hospitals include trauma centers, rehabilitation hospitals, children's hospitals, seniors' (geriatric) hospitals, and hospitals for dealing with specific medical needs such as psychiatric treatment (see psychiatric hospital) and certain disease categories. Specialized hospitals can help reduce health care costs compared to general hospitals. Hospitals are classified as general, specialty, or government depending on the sources of income received. A teaching hospital combines assistance to people with teaching to health science students and auxiliary healthcare students. A health science facility smaller than a hospital is generally called a clinic. Hospitals have a range of departments (e.g. surgery and urgent care) and specialist units such as cardiology. Some hospitals have outpatient departments and some have chronic treatment units. Common support units include a pharmacy, pathology, and radiology. Hospitals are typically funded by public funding, health organisations (for-profit or nonprofit), health insurance companies, or charities, including direct charitable donations. Historically, hospitals were often founded and funded by religious orders, or by charitable individuals and leaders. Currently, hospitals are largely staffed by professional physicians, surgeons, nurses, and allied health practitioners, whereas in the past, this work was usually performed by the members of founding religious orders or by volunteers. However, there are various Catholic religious orders, such as the Alexians and the Bon Secours Sisters that still focus on hospital ministry in the late 1990s, as well as several other Christian denominations, including the Methodists and Lutherans, which run hospitals. In accordance with the original meaning of the word, hospitals were original "places of hospitality", and this meaning is still preserved in the names of some institutions such as the Royal Hospital Chelsea, established in 1681 as a retirement and nursing home for veteran soldiers.ent and nursing home for veteran soldiers.)
• Habitat partagé / habitat communautaire  + (A housing cooperative, or housing co-op, i … A housing cooperative, or housing co-op, is a legal entity, usually a cooperative or a corporation, which owns real estate, consisting of one or more residential buildings; it is one type of housing tenure. Housing cooperatives are a distinctive form of home ownership that have many characteristics that differ from other residential arrangements such as single family home ownership, condominiums and renting. The corporation is membership based, with membership granted by way of a share purchase in the cooperative. Each shareholder in the legal entity is granted the right to occupy one housing unit. A primary advantage of the housing cooperative is the pooling of the members' resources so that their buying power is leveraged; thus lowering the cost per member in all the services and products associated with home ownership. Another key element in some forms of housing cooperatives is that the members, through their elected representatives, screen and select who may live in the cooperative, unlike any other form of home ownership. Housing cooperatives fall into two general tenure categories: non-ownership (referred to as non-equity or continuing) and ownership (referred to as equity or strata). In non-equity cooperatives, occupancy rights are sometimes granted subject to an occupancy agreement, which is similar to a lease. In equity cooperatives, occupancy rights are sometimes granted by way of the purchase agreements and legal instruments registered on the title. The corporation's articles of incorporation and bylaws as well as occupancy agreement specifies the cooperative's rules. The word cooperative is also used to describe a non-share capital co-op model in which fee-paying members obtain the right to occupy a bedroom and share the communal resources of a house owned by a cooperative organization. Such is the case with student cooperatives in some college and university communities across the United States.sity communities across the United States.)
• Paysage  + (A landscape is the visible features of an … A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or man-made features, often considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal. A landscape includes the physical elements of geophysically defined landforms such as (ice-capped) mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of land use, buildings, and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect a living synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity. The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates one region from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to people's lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park or wilderness. The Earth has a vast range of landscapes, including the icy landscapes of polar regions, mountainous landscapes, vast arid desert landscapes, islands, and coastal landscapes, densely forested or wooded landscapes including past boreal forests and tropical rainforests, and agricultural landscapes of temperate and tropical regions. The activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping.rea of land is referred to as landscaping.)
• Paysages  + (A landscape is the visible features of an … A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or man-made features, often considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal. A landscape includes the physical elements of geophysically defined landforms such as (ice-capped) mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of land use, buildings, and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect a living synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity. The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates one region from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to people's lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park or wilderness. The Earth has a vast range of landscapes, including the icy landscapes of polar regions, mountainous landscapes, vast arid desert landscapes, islands, and coastal landscapes, densely forested or wooded landscapes including past boreal forests and tropical rainforests, and agricultural landscapes of temperate and tropical regions. The activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping.rea of land is referred to as landscaping.)
• Bibliothèques  + (A library is a collection of materials, bo … A library is a collection of materials, books or media that are accessible for use and not just for display purposes. A library provides physical (hard copies) or digital access (soft copies) materials, and may be a physical location or a virtual space, or both. A library's collection can include printed materials and other physical resources in many formats such as DVD, CD and cassette as well as access to information, music or other content held on bibliographic databases. A library, which may vary widely in size, may be organized for use and maintained by a public body such as a government; an institution such as a school or museum; a corporation; or a private individual. In addition to providing materials, libraries also provide the services of librarians who are trained and experts at finding, selecting, circulating and organizing information and at interpreting information needs, navigating and analyzing very large amounts of information with a variety of resources. Library buildings often provide quiet areas for studying, as well as common areas for group study and collaboration, and may provide public facilities for access to their electronic resources; for instance: computers and access to the Internet. The library's clientele and services offered vary depending on its type: users of a public library have different needs from those of a special library or academic library, for example. Libraries may also be community hubs, where programs are delivered and people engage in lifelong learning. Modern libraries extend their services beyond the physical walls of a building by providing material accessible by electronic means, including from home via the Internet. The services the library offers are variously described as library services, information services, or the combination "library and information services", although different institutions and sources define such terminology differently.urces define such terminology differently.)
• Communs de voisinage  + (A neighborhood commons is a shared communi … A neighborhood commons is a shared community space where neighborhood residents can come together to celebrate life, and young and old can be in each other’s presence but not in each other’s way. It can be a small-scale, multi-use facility, combining a sitting area, tot lot, playground, park, and community garden, designed and constructed on one or more vacant lots by residents, volunteer professionals, and youth work teams. The term "neighborhood commons" was first widely used by landscape architect, educator, and psychologist Karl Linn, who guided the creation of many such spaces during the 1960s through 1980s, primarily in the northeastern United States.imarily in the northeastern United States.)
• Assemblée populaire  + (A popular assembly (or people's assembly) … A popular assembly (or people's assembly) is a gathering called to address issues of importance to participants. Assemblies tend to be freely open to participation and operate by direct democracy. Some assemblies are of people from a location, some from a given workplace, industry or educational establishment others are called to address a specific issue. The term is often used to describe gatherings that address, what participants feel are, the effects of a democratic deficit in representative democratic systems. Sometimes assemblies are created to form an alternative power structure, other times they work with other forms of government. they work with other forms of government.)
• Services publics  + (A public service is any service intended t … A public service is any service intended to address specific needs pertaining to the aggregate members of a community. Public services are available to people within a government jurisdiction as provided directly through public sector agencies or via public financing to private businesses or voluntary organizations (or even as provided by family households, though terminology may differ depending on context). Other public services are undertaken on behalf of a government's residents or in the interest of its citizens. The term is associated with a social consensus (usually expressed through democratic elections) that certain services should be available to all, regardless of income, physical ability or mental acuity. Examples of such services include the fire brigade, police, air force, and paramedics (see also public service broadcasting). Even where public services are neither publicly provided nor publicly financed, they are usually subject to regulation going beyond that applying to most economic sectors for social and political reasons. Public policy, when made in the public's interest and with its motivations, is a type of public service. motivations, is a type of public service.)
• Rue  + (A street is a public thoroughfare in a bui … A street is a public thoroughfare in a built environment. It is a public parcel of land adjoining buildings in an urban context, on which people may freely assemble, interact, and move about. A street can be as simple as a level patch of dirt, but is more often paved with a hard, durable surface such as tarmac, concrete, cobblestone or brick. Portions may also be smoothed with asphalt, embedded with rails, or otherwise prepared to accommodate non-pedestrian traffic. Originally, the word street simply meant a paved road (Latin: via strata). The word street is still sometimes used informally as a synonym for road, for example in connection with the ancient Watling Street, but city residents and urban planners draw a crucial modern distinction: a road's main function is transportation, while streets facilitate public interaction. Examples of streets include pedestrian streets, alleys, and city-centre streets too crowded for road vehicles to pass. Conversely, highways and motorways are types of roads, but few would refer to them as streets.s, but few would refer to them as streets.)
• Économie de subsistance  + (A subsistence economy is an economy direct … A subsistence economy is an economy directed to basic subsistence (the provision of food, clothing, shelter) rather than to the market. Henceforth, "subsistence" is understood as supporting oneself at a minimum level. Often, the subsistence economy is moneyless and relies on natural resources to provide for basic needs through hunting, gathering, and agriculture. In a subsistence economy, economic surplus is minimal and only used to trade for basic goods, and there is no industrialization.In hunting and gathering societies, resources are often if not typically underused. In human history, before the first cities, all humans lived in a subsistence economy. As urbanization, civilization, and division of labor spread, various societies moved to other economic systems at various times. Some remain relatively unchanged, ranging from uncontacted peoples, to marginalized areas of developing countries, to some cultures that choose to retain a traditional economy. Capital can be generally defined as assets invested with the expectation that their value will increase, usually because there is the expectation of profit, rent, interest, royalties, capital gain or some other kind of return. However, this type of economy cannot usually become wealthy by virtue of the system, and instead requires further investments to stimulate economic growth. In other words, a subsistence economy only possesses enough goods to be used by a particular nation to maintain its existence and provides little to no surplus for other investments. It is common for a surplus capital to be invested in social capital such as feasting.vested in social capital such as feasting.)
• Lanceur d'alerte  + (A whistleblower (also written as whistle-b … A whistleblower (also written as whistle-blower or whistle blower) is a person, often an employee, who reveals information about activity within a private or public organization that is deemed illegal, immoral, illicit, unsafe or fraudulent. Whistleblowers can use a variety of internal or external channels to communicate information or allegations. Over 83% of whistleblowers report internally to a supervisor, human resources, compliance, or a neutral third party within the company, hoping that the company will address and correct the issues. A whistleblower can also bring allegations to light by communicating with external entities, such as the media, government, or law enforcement. Whistleblowing can occur in either the private sector or the public sector. Retaliation is a real risk for whistleblowers, who often pay a heavy price for blowing the whistle. The most common form of retaliation is abrupt termination of employment. However, several other actions may also be considered retaliatory, including extreme increases in workloads, having hours cut drastically, preventing task completion, or bullying. Laws in many countries attempt to protect whistleblowers and to regulate the whistleblowing activities. These laws tend to adopt different approaches to public and private sector whistleblowing. Whistleblowers do not always achieve their aims. For their claims to be credible and successful, they must have compelling evidence to support their claims that the government or regulating body can use or investigate to "prove" such claims and hold corrupt companies and/or government agencies to account.ies and/or government agencies to account.)
• Écoquartier  + (An ecodistrict or eco-district is a neolog … An ecodistrict or eco-district is a neologism associating the terms "district" and "eco" as an abbreviation of ecological.It designates an urban planning aiming to integrate objectives of sustainable development and social equity and reduce the ecological footprint of a neighborhood, urban area, or region. This notion insists on the consideration of the whole environmental issues by way of a collaborative process. In order to design ecodistricts, one needs to completely redesign their energy system plans. The usage of photovoltaic panels and electric vehicles is common.ic panels and electric vehicles is common.)
• Anthropomorphisme  + (Anthropomorphism is the attribution of hum … Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology. Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics to abstract concepts such as nations, emotions, and natural forces, such as seasons and weather. Both have ancient roots as storytelling and artistic devices, and most cultures have traditional fables with anthropomorphized animals as characters. People have also routinely attributed human emotions and behavioral traits to wild as well as domesticated animals.s to wild as well as domesticated animals.)
• Métier (corporation)  + (Au sens large, une corporation est une réu … Au sens large, une corporation est une réunion durable de personnes poursuivant un but commun, et dont l'état ne dépend pas du changement de ses membres. Le mot vient du latin corporari (« se former en corps »), et désigne une personne morale dont les membres (personnes physiques et/ou morales) possèdent en général une même caractéristique (par exemple, l'exercice d'une fonction). Les corporations peuvent être de droit privé mais sont en général (dans un sens plus contemporain du terme) instituée par une loi et de droit public. Les corporations se distinguent des établissements, qui sont groupements de biens affectés à un certain but. Au sens large du terme, les associations, syndicats et apparentés, qui sont des regroupements volontaires de droit privé sont donc des corporations. Le corporatisme peut désigner, selon qu'il prend ou non une connotation péjorative, la tendance qu'ont les membres d'un corps professionnel ou administratif à privilégier leurs intérêts matériels au détriment de ceux du public qu'ils servent (consommateurs, administrés, justiciables, usagers, élèves, clients, patients, etc.) usagers, élèves, clients, patients, etc.))
• Barcelona en Comú  + (Barcelona en Comú (Catalan for "Barcelona … Barcelona en Comú (Catalan for "Barcelona in Common") is a citizen platform launched in June 2014 that is currently governing in minority in the City of Barcelona. Its policy agenda includes defending social justice and community rights, promoting participatory democracy, introducing mechanisms to tackle corruption, and developing a new model of tourism for Barcelona.ping a new model of tourism for Barcelona.)
• Climat  + (Climate is the long-term weather pattern i … Climate is the long-term weather pattern in an area, typically averaged over 30 years. More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation. In a broader sense, climate is the state of the components of the climate system, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere and the interactions between them. The climate of a location is affected by its latitude/longitude, terrain, altitude, land use and nearby water bodies and their currents. Climates can be classified according to the average and typical variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. The most widely used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification. The Thornthwaite system, in use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it. Finally, the Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region. Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates. Paleoclimatologists seek to explain climate variations for all parts of the Earth during any given geologic period, beginning with the time of the Earth's formation. Since very few direct observations of climate were available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables. They include non-biotic evidence—such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores—and biotic evidence—such as tree rings and coral. Climate models are mathematical models of past, present, and future climates. Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from various factors. Recent warming is discussed in global warming, which results in redistributions. For example, "a 3 °C [5 °F] change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300–400 km [190–250 mi] in latitude (in the temperate zone) or 500 m [1,600 ft] in elevation. Therefore, species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones."de in response to shifting climate zones.")
• Collaboration  + (Collaboration (from Latin com- "with" + la … Collaboration (from Latin com- "with" + laborare "to labor", "to work") is the process of two or more people, entities or organizations working together to complete a task or achieve a goal. Collaboration is similar to cooperation. Most collaboration requires leadership, although the form of leadership can be social within a decentralized and egalitarian group. Teams that work collaboratively often access greater resources, recognition and rewards when facing competition for finite resources. Structured methods of collaboration encourage introspection of behavior and communication. Such methods aim to increase the success of teams as they engage in collaborative problem-solving. Collaboration is present in opposing goals exhibiting the notion of adversarial collaboration, though this is not a common use of the term. In its applied sense, "(a) collaboration is a purposeful relationship in which all parties strategically choose to cooperate in order to accomplish a shared outcome." in order to accomplish a shared outcome.")
• Résilience communautaire  + (Community resilience is the sustained abil … Community resilience is the sustained ability of a community to use available resources (energy, communication, transportation, food, etc.) to respond to, withstand, and recover from adverse situations (e.g. economic collapse to global catastrophic risks). This allows for the adaptation and growth of a community after disaster strikes. Communities that are resilient are able to minimize any disaster, making the return to normal life as effortless as possible. By implementing a community resilience plan, a community can come together and overcome any disaster, while rebuilding physically and economically. Due to its high complexity the discussion on resilient societies has increasingly been considered from an inter- and transdisciplinary scope. Around 2010 the French-speaking discourse coined the notion of collapsology (collapse science), discussing the resilience of societal systems and possible scenarios for societal transformations in the face of a variety of factors, such as dependence on fossil fuels, overpopulation, loss of biodiversity, and instability of the financial system. The controversial term was created by Pablo Servigne (an agricultural engineer) who, with Raphaël Stevens, wrote the book Comment tout peut s'effondrer (literally, "How everything can collapse"). Another, decidedly transdisciplinary approach which has been coined in late 2010s by German researcher Karim Fathi is the concept of "multiresilience" taking into account the fact that crises in the 21st century are interconnected, multi-dimensional and occurring on multiple system levels. Challenges such as the COVID-19 pandemic (individuals, organisations, societies alike) occur simultaneously, often even in interconnected and clustered forms. From a cross-disciplinary perspective, Karim Fathi outlines five systemic principles contributing to increased collective intelligence, responsiveness and creativity of societies in the face of multiple crises occurring simultaneously. Multiresilience is regarded as complementary to already established concepts for assessing and promoting societal resilience potentials. At the same time it criticises the fact that societal resilience has so far always been discussed from a mono-crisis persperctive. According to Karim Fathi, this onesided perspective" proves to be inadequate in terms of complexity, as societies in the 21st century have to deal with many global challenges - so-called „crisis-bundles“ - in the same time. Multiresilience aims to build up "basic robustness" in the sense of higher collective intelligence, which makes societies more capable of anticipating, reacting and solving problems in different crisis contexts.ing problems in different crisis contexts.)
• Culture locale et ancestrale  + (Cultural heritage is the heritage of tangi … Cultural heritage is the heritage of tangible and intangible heritage assets of a group or society that is inherited from past generations. Not all heritages of past generations are "heritage"; rather, heritage is a product of selection by society. Cultural heritage includes tangible culture (such as buildings, monuments, landscapes, books, works of art, and artifacts), intangible culture (such as folklore, traditions, language, and knowledge), and natural heritage (including culturally significant landscapes, and biodiversity). The term is often used in connection with issues relating to the protection of Indigenous intellectual property. The deliberate act of keeping cultural heritage from the present for the future is known as preservation (American English) or conservation (British English), which cultural and historical ethnic museums and cultural centers promote, though these terms may have more specific or technical meanings in the same contexts in the other dialect. Preserved heritage has become an anchor of the global tourism industry, a major contributor of economic value to local communities. Legal protection of cultural property comprises a number of international agreements and national laws.United Nations, UNESCO and Blue Shield International deal with the protection of cultural heritage. This also applies to the integration of United Nations peacekeeping.ntegration of United Nations peacekeeping.)