Rechercher par propriété

Cette page fournit une simple interface de navigation pour trouver des entités décrites par une propriété et une valeur nommée. D’autres interfaces de recherche disponibles comprennent la page recherche de propriété, et le constructeur de requêtes « ask ».

Liste de résultats

• Bien commun  + (In philosophy, economics, and political sc … In philosophy, economics, and political science, the common good (also commonwealth, general welfare, or public benefit) is either what is shared and beneficial for all or most members of a given community, or alternatively, what is achieved by citizenship, collective action, and active participation in the realm of politics and public service. The concept of the common good differs significantly among philosophical doctrines. Early conceptions of the common good were set out by Ancient Greek philosophers, including Aristotle and Plato. One understanding of the common good rooted in Aristotle's philosophy remains in common usage today, referring to what one contemporary scholar calls the "good proper to, and attainable only by, the community, yet individually shared by its members." The concept of common good developed through the work of political theorists, moral philosophers, and public economists, including Thomas Aquinas, Niccolò Machiavelli, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, James Madison, Adam Smith, Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, John Maynard Keynes, John Rawls, and many other thinkers. In contemporary economic theory, a common good is any good which is rivalrous yet non-excludable, while the common good, by contrast, arises in the subfield of welfare economics and refers to the outcome of a social welfare function. Such a social welfare function, in turn, would be rooted in a moral theory of the good (such as utilitarianism). Social choice theory aims to understand processes by which the common good may or may not be realized in societies through the study of collective decision rules. Public choice theory applies microeconomic methodology to the study of political science in order to explain how private interests affect political activities and outcomes. affect political activities and outcomes.)
• Exploitation agricole intensive  + (Intensive agriculture, also known as inten … Intensive agriculture, also known as intensive farming (as opposed to extensive farming), conventional, or industrial agriculture, is a type of agriculture, both of crop plants and of animals, with higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area. It is characterized by a low fallow ratio, higher use of inputs such as capital and labour, and higher crop yields per unit land area. Most commercial agriculture is intensive in one or more ways. Forms that rely heavily on industrial methods are often called industrial agriculture, which is characterised by innovations designed to increase yield. Techniques include planting multiple crops per year, reducing the frequency of fallow years, and improving cultivars. It also involves increased use of fertilizers, plant growth regulators, pesticides, antibiotics for livestock and mechanised agriculture, controlled by increased and more detailed analysis of growing conditions, including weather, soil, water, weeds, and pests. Intensive farms are widespread in developed nations and increasingly prevalent worldwide. Most of the meat, dairy products, eggs, fruits, and vegetables available in supermarkets are produced by such farms. Some intensive farms can use sustainable methods, although this typically necessitates higher inputs of labor or lower yields. Sustainably increasing agricultural productivity, especially on smallholdings, is an important way of decreasing the amount of land needed for farming and slowing environmental degradation through processes like deforestation. Intensive animal farming involves large numbers of animals raised on limited land, for example by rotational grazing, or in the Western world sometimes as concentrated animal feeding operations. These methods increase the yields of food and fiber per acre as compared to extensive animal husbandry; concentrated feed is brought to seldom-moved animals, or with rotational grazing the animals are repeatedly moved to fresh forage.mals are repeatedly moved to fresh forage.)
• Anti-capitalisme  + (L'anticapitalisme regroupe un ensemble de … L'anticapitalisme regroupe un ensemble de mouvements qui s'opposent au capitalisme. Les aspects visés diffèrent selon les conceptions et peuvent notamment concerner, sans y être limités, le profit et l'importance de l'argent, la spéculation, le salariat, la concurrence économique, les effets considérés comme des effets néfastes du capitalisme sur la société telles les inégalités économiques et sociales qu'il entraîne et la considération de son « immoralité » consécutive, la course d'accumulation induite et ses conséquences pour l'environnement, ou les formes sociales de base du capitalisme. Un spectre politique large et très divers s'est réclamé ou se réclame de l'anticapitalisme.éclamé ou se réclame de l'anticapitalisme.)
• Agriculture biologique  + (La agricultura ecológica, orgánica o bioló … La agricultura ecológica, orgánica o biológica es un sistema de cultivo de una explotación agrícola autónoma basada en la utilización óptima de los recursos naturales, sin emplear productos químicos sintéticos, u organismos genéticamente modificados (OGMs) —ni para abono ni para combatir las plagas—ni para cultivos, logrando de esta forma obtener alimentos orgánicos a la vez que se conserva la fertilidad de la tierra y se respeta el medio ambiente. Todo ello de manera sostenible, equilibrada y mantenible. Los principales objetivos de la agricultura orgánica son la obtención de alimentos saludables, de mayor calidad nutritiva, sin la presencia de sustancias de síntesis química y obtenidos mediante procedimientos sostenibles. Este tipo de agricultura es un sistema global de gestión de la producción, que incrementa y realza la salud de los agrosistemas, inclusive la diversidad biológica, los ciclos biológicos y la actividad biológica del suelo. Esto se consigue aplicando, siempre que sea posible, métodos agronómicos, biológicos y mecánicos, en contraposición a la utilización de materiales sintéticos para desempeñar cualquier función específica del sistema. Esta forma de producción, además de contemplar el aspecto ecológico, incluye en su filosofía el mejoramiento de las condiciones de vida de sus practicantes, de tal forma que su objetivo se apega a lograr la sostenibilidad integral del sistema de producción agrícola; o sea, constituirse como un agrosistema social, ecológico y económicamente sostenible. La agricultura natural, la agricultura indígena, la agricultura familiar, la agricultura campesina, son tipos de agricultura natural que buscan el equilibrio con el ecosistema, son sistemas agrícolas sostenibles, que se han mantenido a lo largo del tiempo en distintas regiones del mundo buscando satisfacer la demanda de alimento natural y nutritivo a las personas y los animales, de manera que el agroecosistema mantenga el equilibrio.La agricultura biodinámica, y la permacultura, comparten algunos de sus principios y métodos, pero son más recientes. En esta práctica se puede tomar en cuenta los policultivos que a diferencia de los monocultivos provocan la erosión del suelo y evitan que se aprovechen los recursos del suelo. que se aprovechen los recursos del suelo.)
• Gestion de l'eau  + (La gestion de l'eau est l'activité qui con … La gestion de l'eau est l'activité qui consiste à protéger, planifier, développer, distribuer et gérer l'utilisation optimale des ressources en eau et des milieux aquatiques, des points de vue qualitatif et quantitatif. Ceci inclut la gestion des risques « quantitatifs » et évènements extrêmes de sécheresse et pénurie, d'inondations et de crues, érosion des sols et du trait de côte, d', notamment liés au changement climatique, à la déforestation et à la destruction des zones humides. S'y ajoute les questions de pollutions telluriques des zones côtières et des mers et océans, par les activités humaines, essentiellement charriées par les fleuves. Axée sur le développement des ressources en eau depuis les années 1970, cette activité se tourne sur leur gestion dans les années 1980 et sur la gestion intégrée des ressources en eau dans les années 1990, cette évolution traduisant la mobilisation du secteur public et privé en faveur du développement durable. En 2017, au moins 196 villes mondiales, soit 1,2 milliard de personnes (20 % de la population) sont considérées comme confrontées à des problèmes de gestion de l’eau selon le CDP (ex. : Miami, Pittsburgh (États-Unis) et Johannesburg (Afrique du Sud), qui dont confrontées à un risque « extrême » d’inondations. Les actions de gestion sont de court, moyen et long termes et pour certaines doivent concerner tout un bassin versant. Elles concernent donc de nombreux acteurs (dont collectivités publiques, entreprises agriculteurs et habitants), entités décisionnelles réunies sous le nom de gouvernance de l'eau. Dans un contexte de marchandisation l'eau est de plus en plus perçue comme une ressource naturelle précieuse et un bien commun à partager avec les autres êtres vivants de la planète ; une ressource limitée et inégalement répartie, à utiliser de manière économe et à dépolluer avant de la rendre au milieu naturel.luer avant de la rendre au milieu naturel.)
• Gestion de l'eau  + (La gestión del agua o la gestión de recurs … La gestión del agua o la gestión de recursos hídricos es la actividad de planificar, desarrollar, distribuir y dirigir el uso óptimo de los recursos hídricos. Es un subconjunto de la . A veces se la denomina "gestión sostenible de recursos hídricos", pero es una redundancia, porque toda gestión óptima es necesariamente sostenible. El agua es esencial para la supervivencia de los seres vivos. La gestión del agua deberá continuar adaptándose a los cambios actuales y futuros en la existencia y asignación de estos recursos. Con la creciente incertidumbre por el calentamiento mundial y con los impactos a largo plazo de las acciones de gestión, la toma de decisiones será aún más difícil. Es probable que el calentamiento mundial lleve a situaciones aún no experimentadas. En consecuencia se buscan estrategias alternativas de gestión para evitar contratiempos en la asignación de recursos hídricos. Idealmente, la planificación de los recursos hídricos debe considerar todas las demandas de agua (sanitaria, agricultura, industria, medio ambiente), que compiten entre sí por un recurso escaso. La planificación busca repartir equitativamente el agua para satisfacer todas las demandas. Al igual que en otros casos de gestión de recursos, esto rara vez resulta posible en la práctica. Uno de las mayores preocupaciones sobre los recursos hídricos es la sostenibilidad de su asignación actual y futura. Cuando el agua deviene más escasa, crece enormemente la importancia de cómo se gestiona. Encontrar un equilibrio entre lo que necesitan las personas y lo que necesita el medio ambiente es un paso importante en la sostenibilidad de los recursos hídricos.a sostenibilidad de los recursos hídricos.)
• Justice sociale  + (La justice sociale est une construction mo … La justice sociale est une construction morale et politique qui vise à l'égalité des droits et conçoit la nécessité d'une solidarité collective entre les personnes d'une société donnée. L'entrée correspondant à ce terme dans le Dictionnaire des sciences économiques et sociales le fait reposer théoriquement sur deux principes. Soit, un premier principe d'équité, avec lequel il ne faut pas confondre celui de justice, et qui s'entend plutôt comme le principe du « à chacun son dû ». Dans ce cas, la part individuelle revenant à celui qui bénéficie du traitement équitable doit être conforme aux attentes les plus généralement exprimées dans une société à l'égard des autres parts individuelles. Soit, un second principe, dit moral, d'une prémisse d'égalité entre tous les membres composants la société. Dans ce cas, la notion de justice sociale est essentiellement une projection vers une société plus juste, en admettant qu'il y ait toujours des injustices. On peut le voir soit comme une utopie, soit comme une démarche allant vers plus de progressisme. Ce premier partage définitoire permet de tracer plusieurs règles générales d'application de la justice sociale. La justice sociale est dite commutative quand elle est fondée sur l'idée que la pure réciprocité doit exister entre les membres et la société (chacun reçoit en contrepartie mesurée d'un effort fourni). Elle sera, en revanche, qualifiée de distributive, si elle vise à donner à chacun la part qui lui revient pour vivre décemment, en se réservant de préciser quels critères ou catégories seront utilisés pour élaborer cette distribution (économique, sociale, culturelle). Les actions ayant pour objectif de rétablir une justice sociale visent à élaborer un meilleur système de répartitions, où chaque individu a et conserve les mêmes chances de réussite tout au long des situations de sa vie d'individu. Ainsi, on parle parfois d'« égalité des chances ». Les corrections nécessaires peuvent être sociales, financières ou culturelles. La justice sociale peut aussi se définir de manière négative : est injuste ce qui n'est pas acceptable socialement. Par exemple, les inégalités de salaires entre métiers de qualifications différentes sont le plus souvent considérées comme justes, parce qu'elles sont socialement acceptées par la majorité. Il existe une distinction entre justice sociale (ou équité) et égalité. La justice sociale est aussi une notion qui évolue dans le temps, ce qui est juste socialement peut devenir injuste si le contexte change (voir sociologie de la justice sociale). Dans son ouvrage majeur Théorie de la justice de 1971, le libéral John Rawls écrit qu'une société est juste si elle respecte trois principes, dans l'ordre : 1. </br>* garantie des libertés de base égales pour tous ; 2. </br>* égalité des chances ; 3. </br>* maintien des seules inégalités qui profitent aux plus défavorisés.alités qui profitent aux plus défavorisés.)
• Souveraineté alimentaire  + (La souveraineté alimentaire est un concept … La souveraineté alimentaire est un concept développé et présenté pour la première fois par Via Campesina lors du Sommet de l'alimentation organisé par la FAO à Rome en 1996. Il a depuis été repris et précisé par divers courants altermondialistes lors de différents Forums Sociaux Mondiaux. La souveraineté alimentaire est présentée comme un droit international qui laisse la possibilité aux populations, aux États ou aux groupes d'États de mettre en place les politiques agricoles les mieux adaptées à leurs populations sans qu'elles puissent avoir un effet négatif sur les populations d'autres pays. Elle se construit à l'origine dans l'objectif de permettre le respect des droits des paysans. La souveraineté alimentaire est donc une rupture par rapport à l'organisation actuelle des marchés agricoles mise en œuvre par l'OMC. Complémentaire du concept de sécurité alimentaire qui concerne la quantité d'aliments disponibles, l'accès des populations à ceux-ci, l'utilisation biologique des aliments et le problème de la prévention et gestion des crises, la souveraineté alimentaire accorde en plus une importance aux conditions sociales et environnementales de production des aliments. Elle prône un accès plus équitable à la terre pour les paysans pauvres, au moyen si nécessaire d'une réforme agraire et de mécanismes de sécurisation des droits d'usage du foncier. Au niveau local, les défenseurs de la souveraineté alimentaire favorisent le maintien d'une agriculture de proximité destinée en priorité à alimenter les marchés régionaux et nationaux. Les cultures vivrières et l'agriculture familiale de petite échelle sont présentées par les défenseurs de la souveraineté alimentaire comme étant d'une grande efficacité économique[réf. nécessaire], sociale[réf. nécessaire] et environnementale[réf. nécessaire], comparée à l'agriculture industrielle et les plantations de grande échelle où travaillent de nombreux salariés. La place et le rôle des femmes sont privilégiés. La souveraineté alimentaire privilégie des techniques agricoles qui favorisent l'autonomie des paysans. Elle est donc favorable à l'agriculture biologique et à l'agriculture paysanne. Elle refuse l'utilisation des plantes transgéniques en agriculture. des plantes transgéniques en agriculture.)
• Développement durable  + (Le développement durable (en anglais : sus … Le développement durable (en anglais : sustainable development, parfois traduit par développement soutenable) est une conception du développement qui s'inscrit dans une perspective de long terme et en intégrant les contraintes écologiques et sociales à l'économie. Selon la définition donnée dans le rapport de la Commission mondiale sur l'environnement et le développement de l'Organisation des Nations unies, dit rapport Brundtland, où cette expression est apparue pour la première fois en 1987, « le développement durable est un développement qui répond aux besoins du présent sans compromettre la capacité des générations futures de répondre aux leurs ». Cette notion s'est imposée à la suite de la prise de conscience progressive, depuis les années 1970, de la finitude écologique de la Terre, liée aux limites planétaires sur le long terme. La notion fait toutefois l'objet de , notamment de la part des tenants de la décroissance, pour lesquels cette notion reste trop liée à celle de la croissance économique, mais aussi de la part de ceux qui y voient un frein au développement.ux qui y voient un frein au développement.)
• Militance  + (Le militantisme est une forme d'engagement … Le militantisme est une forme d'engagement collectif à une cause de nature morale, religieuse, sociale, politique, associative ou syndicale souvent en vue de protester contre ce qui est perçu comme une injustice. Historiquement ce terme militaire issu du latin fait référence aux membres de la milice du Christ, mais son usage au vingtième siècle dérive pour décrire l'expression organisée d'une protestation d'un groupe social.sée d'une protestation d'un groupe social.)
• Informations  + (News is information about current events. … News is information about current events. This may be provided through many different media: word of mouth, printing, postal systems, broadcasting, electronic communication, or through the testimony of observers and witnesses to events. News is sometimes called "hard news" to differentiate it from soft media. Common topics for news reports include war, government, politics, education, health, the environment, economy, business, fashion, entertainment, and sport, as well as quirky or unusual events. Government proclamations, concerning royal ceremonies, laws, taxes, public health, and criminals, have been dubbed news since ancient times. Technological and social developments, often driven by government communication and espionage networks, have increased the speed with which news can spread, as well as influenced its content. Throughout history, people have transported new information through oral means. Having developed in China over centuries, newspapers became established in Europe during the early modern period. In the 20th century, radio and television became an important means of transmitting news. Whilst in the 21st, the internet has also begun to play a similar role.net has also begun to play a similar role.)
• Science ouverte  + (Open science is the movement to make scien … Open science is the movement to make scientific research (including publications, data, physical samples, and software) and its dissemination accessible to all levels of society, amateur or professional. Open science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks. It encompasses practices such as publishing open research, campaigning for open access, encouraging scientists to practice open-notebook science (such as openly sharing data and code), broader dissemination and engagement in science and generally making it easier to publish, access and communicate scientific knowledge. Usage of the term varies substantially across disciplines, with a notable prevalence in the STEM disciplines. Open research is often used quasi-synonymously to address the gap that the denotion of "science" might have regarding an inclusion of the Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences. The primary focus connecting all disciplines is the widespread uptake of new technologies and tools, and the underlying ecology of the production, dissemination and reception of knowledge from a research-based point-of-view. As Tennant et al. (2020) note, the term open science "implicitly seems only to regard ‘scientific’ disciplines, whereas open scholarship can be considered to include research from the Arts and Humanities, as well as the different roles and practices that researchers perform as educators and communicators, and an underlying open philosophy of sharing knowledge beyond research communities." Open science can be seen as a continuation of, rather than a revolution in, practices begun in the 17th century with the advent of the academic journal, when the societal demand for access to scientific knowledge reached a point at which it became necessary for groups of scientists to share resources with each other. In modern times there is debate about the extent to which scientific information should be shared. The conflict that led to the Open Science movement is between the desire of scientists to have access to shared resources versus the desire of individual entities to profit when other entities partake of their resources. Additionally, the status of open access and resources that are available for its promotion are likely to differ from one field of academic inquiry to another. one field of academic inquiry to another.)
• P2P  + (Peer-to-peer (P2P) computing or networking … Peer-to-peer (P2P) computing or networking is a distributed application architecture that partitions tasks or workloads between peers. Peers are equally privileged, equipotent participants in the network. They are said to form a peer-to-peer network of nodes. Peers make a portion of their resources, such as processing power, disk storage or network bandwidth, directly available to other network participants, without the need for central coordination by servers or stable hosts. Peers are both suppliers and consumers of resources, in contrast to the traditional client–server model in which the consumption and supply of resources are divided. While P2P systems had previously been used in many application domains, the architecture was popularized by the file sharing system Napster, originally released in 1999. The concept has inspired new structures and philosophies in many areas of human interaction. In such social contexts, peer-to-peer as a meme refers to the egalitarian social networking that has emerged throughout society, enabled by Internet technologies in general.abled by Internet technologies in general.)
• Permaculture  + (Permaculture is an approach to land manage … Permaculture is an approach to land management and settlement design that adopts arrangements observed in flourishing natural ecosystems. It includes a set of design principles derived using whole-systems thinking. It applies these principles in fields such as regenerative agriculture, town planning, rewilding, and community resilience. Permaculture originally came from "permanent agriculture", but was later adjusted to mean "permanent culture", incorporating social aspects. The term was coined in 1978 by Bill Mollison and David Holmgren, who formulated the concept in opposition to modern industrialized methods instead adopting a more traditional or "natural" approach to agriculture. Permaculture has many branches including ecological design, ecological engineering, regenerative design, environmental design, and construction. It also includes integrated water resources management, sustainable architecture, and regenerative and self-maintained habitat and agricultural systems modeled from natural ecosystems. Permaculture uses creative design processes based on whole-systems thinking, considering all materials and energies in flow that affect or are affected by proposed changes. In practical terms it means that before, for example, modifying overland water flow, one fully considers both upstream and downstream effects in the short and long terms. Or, when looking at a "problem", such as brushy vegetation, one considers how removing or altering it will affect soil and wildlife, and how these interacting forces would evolve over time and space. Permaculture has been criticised as being poorly defined and unscientific. Critics have pushed for less reliance on anecdote and extrapolation from ecological first principles, in favor of peer-reviewed research to substantiate productivity claims and to clarify methodology. Peter Harper from the Centre for Alternative Technology suggests that most of what passes for permaculture has no relevance to real problems.culture has no relevance to real problems.)
• Pirate  + (Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal vi … Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable goods. Those who conduct acts of piracy are called pirates, while the dedicated ships that pirates use are called pirate ships. The earliest documented instances of piracy were in the 14th century BC, when the Sea Peoples, a group of ocean raiders, attacked the ships of the Aegean and Mediterranean civilisations. Narrow channels which funnel shipping into predictable routes have long created opportunities for piracy, as well as for privateering and commerce raiding. Historic examples include the waters of Gibraltar, the Strait of Malacca, Madagascar, the Gulf of Aden, and the English Channel, whose geographic structures facilitated pirate attacks. Privateering uses similar methods to piracy, but the captain acts under orders of the state authorising the capture of merchant ships belonging to an enemy nation, making it a legitimate form of war-like activity by non-state actors. A land-based parallel is the ambushing of travelers by bandits and brigands in highways and mountain passes. While the term can include acts committed in the air, on land (especially across national borders or in connection with taking over and robbing a car or train), or in other major bodies of water or on a shore, in cyberspace, as well as the fictional possibility of space piracy, it generally refers to maritime piracy. It does not normally include crimes committed against people traveling on the same vessel as the perpetrator (e.g. one passenger stealing from others on the same vessel). Piracy or pirating is the name of a specific crime under customary international law and also the name of a number of crimes under the municipal law of a number of states. In the early 21st century, seaborne piracy against transport vessels remains a significant issue (with estimated worldwide losses of US$16 billion per year in 2004), particularly in the waters between the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, off the Somali coast, and also in the Strait of Malacca and Singapore. Currently, pirates armed with automatic weapons, such as assault rifles, and machine guns, grenades and rocket propelled grenades use small motorboats to attack and board ships, a tactic that takes advantage of the small number of crew members on modern cargo vessels and transport ships. They also use larger vessels, known as "mother ships", to supply the smaller motorboats. The international community is facing many challenges in bringing modern pirates to justice, as these attacks often occur in international waters. Some nations have used their naval forces to protect private ships from pirate attacks and to pursue pirates, and some private vessels use armed security guards, high-pressure water cannons, or sound cannons to repel boarders, and use radar to avoid potential threats. A romanticised version of piracy in the Age of Sail has long been a part of Western pop culture. Captain Charles Johnson's A General History of the Pyrates, published in London in 1724, contained biographies of several pirates of the "golden age" and brought them to public attention. Pirates of the era have been further popularised and stereotyped by many subsequent works of fiction, most notably by the novels Treasure Island (1883) and Peter Pan (1911), two film adaptions of Treasure Island (1934 and 1950) and, more recently, by the Pirates of the Caribbean film franchise, which began in 2003.bbean film franchise, which began in 2003.)
• Santé publique  + (Public health is "the science and art of p … Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals". Analyzing the determinants of health of a population and the threats it faces is the basis for public health. The public can be as small as a handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city; in the case of a pandemic it may encompass several continents. The concept of health takes into account physical, psychological, and social well-being. Public health is an interdisciplinary field. For example, epidemiology, biostatistics, social sciences and management of health services are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health, health education, health politics, occupational safety, disability, oral health, gender issues in health, and sexual and reproductive health. Public health, together with primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, is part of a country's overall health care system. Public health is implemented through the surveillance of cases and health indicators, and through the promotion of healthy behaviors. Common public health initiatives include promotion of hand-washing and breastfeeding, delivery of vaccinations, promoting ventilation and improved air quality both indoors and outdoors, suicide prevention, smoking cessation, obesity education, increasing healthcare accessibility and distribution of condoms to control the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. There is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed countries and developing countries, as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained healthcare workers, monetary resources, or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even a basic level of medical care and disease prevention. A major public health concern in developing countries is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty coupled with governments' reluctance in implementing public health policies. From the beginnings of human civilization, communities promoted health and fought disease at the population level. In complex, pre-industrialized societies, interventions designed to reduce health risks could be the initiative of different stakeholders, such as army generals, the clergy or rulers. Great Britain became a leader in the development of public health initiatives, beginning in the 19th century, due to the fact that it was the first modern urban nation worldwide. The public health initiatives that began to emerge initially focused on sanitation (for example, the Liverpool and London sewerage systems), control of infectious diseases (including vaccination and quarantine) and an evolving infrastructure of various sciences, e.g. statistics, microbiology, epidemiology, sciences of engineering.gy, epidemiology, sciences of engineering.)
• Recherche  + (Research is "creative and systematic work … Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge". It involves the collection, organization and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular attentiveness to controlling sources of bias and error. These activities are characterized by a to accounting and controlling for biases in t. A research project may be an expansion on past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, and the research and development (R&D) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms of research: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, life, technological, etc. The scientific study of research practices is known as meta-research. research practices is known as meta-research.)
• Science  + (Science is a systematic endeavor that buil … Science is a systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Science may be as old as the human species, and some of the earliest archeological evidence for scientific reasoning is tens of thousands of years old. The earliest written records in the history of science come from Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in around 3000 to 1200 BCE. Their contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine entered and shaped Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Western Europe during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the Middle Ages, but was preserved in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age and later by the efforts of Byzantine Greek scholars who brought Greek manuscripts from the dying Byzantine Empire to Western Europe in the Renaissance. The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived "natural philosophy", which was later transformed by the Scientific Revolution that began in the 16th century as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions. The scientific method soon played a greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the 19th century that many of the institutional and professional features of science began to take shape; along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science". Modern science is typically divided into three major branches: natural sciences (e.g., biology, chemistry, and physics), which study the physical world; the social sciences (e.g., economics, psychology, and sociology), which study individuals and societies; and the formal sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science), which study formal systems, governed by axioms and rules. There is disagreement whether the formal sciences are science disciplines, because they do not rely on empirical evidence. Applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as in engineering and medicine. New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems. Contemporary scientific research is highly collaborative and is usually done by teams in academic and research institutions, government agencies, and companies. The practical impact of their work has led to the emergence of science policies that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritizing the ethical and moral development of commercial products, armaments, health care, public infrastructure, and environmental protection.rastructure, and environmental protection.)
• Principe de subsidiarité  + (Subsidiarity is a principle of social orga … Subsidiarity is a principle of social organization that holds that social and political issues should be dealt with at the most immediate or local level that is consistent with their resolution. The Oxford English Dictionary defines subsidiarity as "the principle that a central authority should have a subsidiary function, performing only those tasks which cannot be performed at a more local level". The concept is applicable in the fields of government, political science, neuropsychology, cybernetics, management and in military command (mission command). The OED adds that the term "subsidiarity" in English follows the early German usage of "Subsidiarität". More distantly, it is derived from the Latin verb subsidio (to aid or help), and the related noun subsidium (aid or assistance). The development of the concept of subsidiarity has roots in the natural law philosophy of Thomas Aquinas and was mediated by the social scientific theories of Luigi Taparelli, SJ, in his 1840–43 natural law treatise on the human person in society. In that work, Taparelli established the criteria of just social order, which he referred to as "hypotactical right" and which came to be termed subsidiarity following German influences. Another origin of the concept is in the writings of Calvinist law-philosopher Johannes Althaus who used the word "subsidia" in 1603. As a principle of just social order, it became one of the pillars of modern Catholic social teaching. Subsidiarity is a general principle of European Union law. In the United States of America, Article VI, Paragraph 2 of the constitution of the United States is known as the Supremacy Clause. This establishes that the federal constitution, and federal law generally, take precedence over state laws, and even state constitutions. The principle of States' Rights is sometimes interpreted as being established by the Tenth Amendment, which says that "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."he States respectively, or to the people.")
• Développement durable  + (Sustainable development is an organizing p … Sustainable development is an organizing principle for meeting human development goals while also sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services on which the economy and society depend. The desired result is a state of society where living conditions and resources are used to continue to meet human needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural system. Sustainable development was defined in the 1987 Brundtland Report as "Development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". As the concept of sustainable development developed, it has shifted its focus more towards the economic development, social development and environmental protection for future generations. Sustainable development was first institutionalized with the Rio Process initiated at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. In 2015 the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Sustainable Development Goals(2015 to 2030) and explained how the goals are integrated and indivisible to achieve sustainable development at the global level. The 17 goals address the global challenges, including poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace, and justice. Sustainable development is interlinked with the normative concept of sustainability. UNESCO formulated a distinction between the two concepts as follows: "Sustainability is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it." The concept of sustainable development has been criticized in various ways. While some see it as paradoxical (or an oxymoron) and regard development as inherently unsustainable, others are disappointed in the lack of progress that has been achieved so far. Part of the problem is that "development" itself is not consistently defined.pment" itself is not consistently defined.)
• Technologie  + (Technology is the application of knowledge … Technology is the application of knowledge to reach practical goals in a specifiable and reproducible way. The word technology may also mean the product of such an endeavor. The use of technology is widely prevalent in medicine, science, industry, communication, transportation, and daily life. Technologies include physical objects like utensils or machines and intangible tools such as software. Many technological advancements have led to societal changes. The earliest known technology is the stone tool, used in the prehistoric era, followed by fire use, which contributed to the growth of the human brain and the development of language in the Ice Age. The invention of the wheel in the Bronze Age enabled wider travel and the creation of more complex machines. Recent technological developments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet have lowered communication barriers and ushered in the knowledge economy. While technology contributes to economic development and human prosperity, it can also have negative impacts like pollution or resource depletion, or cause social harms like technological unemployment caused by automation. As a result, philosophical and political debates have arisen over the role and use of technology, the ethics of technology, and the mitigation of technology's potential downsides. Historical and contemporary movements like neo-Luddism and anarcho-primitivism criticize technology's pervasiveness, while adherents to transhumanism and techno-progressivism actively support technological change, viewing it as emancipatory. Many negative impacts of technology can be mitigated through technological innovations like renewable energy in transportation and industry, genetically modified crops to address soil depletion, and space exploration to mitigate global catastrophic risks.ion to mitigate global catastrophic risks.)
• Union Européenne  + (The European Union (EU) is a supranational … The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of 27 member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of 4,233,255.3 km2 (1,634,469.0 sq mi) and an estimated total population of about 447 million. The EU has often been described as a sui generis political entity (without precedent or comparison) combining the characteristics of both a federation and a confederation. Containing 5.8 per cent of the world population in 2020, the EU generated a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of around US$17.1 trillion in 2021, constituting approximately 18 per cent of global nominal GDP. Additionally, all EU states have a very high Human Development Index according to the United Nations Development Programme. Its cornerstone, the Customs Union, paved the way to establishing an internal single market based on standardised legal framework and legislation that applies in all member states in those matters, and only those matters, where the states have agreed to act as one. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market; enact legislation in justice and home affairs; and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development. Passport controls have been abolished for travel within the Schengen Area. The eurozone is a group composed of the 19 EU member states that have fully implemented the economic and monetary union and use the euro currency. Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the union has developed a role in external relations and defence. It maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7 and the G20. Due to its global influence, the European Union has been described by some scholars as an emerging superpower. The union was established along with its citizenship when the Maastricht Treaty came into force in 1993, and was subsequently incorporated as an international law juridical person upon entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009, but its beginnings may be traced to its earliest predecessors incorporated primarily by a group of founding states known as the Inner Six (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany) at the start of modern institutionalised European integration in 1948 and onwards, namely to the Western Union (WU, 1954 renamed Western European Union, WEU), the International Authority for the Ruhr (IAR), the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the European Economic Community (EEC, 1993 renamed European Community, EC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), established, respectively, by the 1948 Treaty of Brussels, the 1948 London Six-Power Conference, the 1951 Treaty of Paris, the 1957 Treaty of Rome and the 1957 Euratom Treaty. These increasingly amalgamated bodies later known collectively as the European Communities have grown since, along with their legal successor, the EU, both in size through accessions of further 21 states as well as in power through acquisitions of various policy areas to their remit by the virtue of the abovementioned treaties, as well as numerous other ones, such as the Modified Brussels Treaty, the Merger Treaty, the Single European Act, the Treaty of Amsterdam and the Treaty of Nice. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Although the United Kingdom became the only member state to leave the EU in 2020, several other countries are aspiring or negotiating to join it.es are aspiring or negotiating to join it.)
• Tourisme  + (Tourism is travel for pleasure or business … Tourism is travel for pleasure or business; also the theory and practice of touring, the business of attracting, accommodating, and entertaining tourists, and the business of operating tours. The World Tourism Organization defines tourism more generally, in terms which go "beyond the common perception of tourism as being limited to holiday activity only", as people "travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure and not less than 24 hours, business and other purposes". Tourism can be domestic (within the traveller's own country) or international, and international tourism has both incoming and outgoing implications on a country's balance of payments. Tourism numbers declined as a result of a strong economic slowdown (the late-2000s recession) between the second half of 2008 and the end of 2009, and in consequence of the outbreak of the 2009 H1N1 influenza virus, but slowly recovered until the COVID-19 pandemic put an abrupt end to the growth. The United Nations World Tourism Organization estimated that global international tourist arrivals might decrease by 58% to 78% in 2020, leading to a potential loss of US$0.9–1.2 trillion in international tourism receipts. Globally, international tourism receipts (the travel item in balance of payments) grew to US$1.03 trillion (€740 billion) in 2005, corresponding to an increase in real terms of 3.8% from 2010. International tourist arrivals surpassed the milestone of 1 billion tourists globally for the first time in 2012, emerging source markets such as China, Russia, and Brazil had significantly increased their spending over the previous decade. Global tourism accounts for c. 8% of global greenhouse-gas emissions. Emissions as well as other significant environmental and social impacts are not always beneficial to local communities and their economies. For this reason, many tourist development organizations have begun to focus on sustainable tourism to mitigate the negative effects caused by the growing impact of tourism. The United Nations World Tourism Organization emphasized these practices by promoting tourism as part of the Sustainable Development Goals, through programs like the International Year for Sustainable Tourism for Development in 2017, and programs like focusing on how SDG 8, SDG 12 and SDG 14 implicate tourism in creating a sustainable economy. Tourism has reached new dimensions with the emerging industry of space tourism as well as the current industry with cruise ships, there are many different ways of tourism. Another potential new tourism industry is virtual tourism.l new tourism industry is virtual tourism.)
• Logiciel libre  + (Un logiciel libre est un logiciel dont l'u … Un logiciel libre est un logiciel dont l'utilisation, l'étude, la modification et la duplication par autrui en vue de sa diffusion sont permises, techniquement et juridiquement, ceci afin de garantir certaines libertés induites, dont le contrôle du programme par l'utilisateur et la possibilité de partage entre individus. Ces droits peuvent être simplement disponibles — cas du domaine public — ou bien établis par une licence, dite « libre », basée sur le droit d'auteur. Les « licences copyleft » garantissent le maintien de ces droits aux utilisateurs même pour les travaux dérivés. Les logiciels libres constituent une alternative à ceux qui ne le sont pas, qualifiés de « propriétaires » ou de « privateurs ». Ces derniers sont alors considérés par une partie de la communauté du logiciel libre comme étant l'instrument d'un pouvoir injuste, en permettant au développeur de contrôler l'utilisateur. Le logiciel libre est souvent confondu à tort avec : </br>* les gratuiciels (freewares) : un gratuiciel est un logiciel gratuit propriétaire, alors qu'un logiciel libre se définit par les libertés accordées à l'utilisateur. Si la nature du logiciel libre facilite et encourage son partage, ce qui tend à le rendre gratuit, elle ne s'oppose pas pour autant à sa rentabilité principalement via des services associés. Les rémunérations sont liées par exemple aux travaux de création, de développement, de mise à disposition et de soutien technique. D'un autre côté les logiciels gratuits ne sont pas nécessairement libres, car leur code source n'est pas systématiquement accessible et leur licence peut ne pas correspondre à la définition du logiciel libre. </br>* l’open source : le logiciel libre, selon son initiateur, est un mouvement social qui repose sur les principes de Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité ; l’open source quant à lui, décrit pour la première fois dans La Cathédrale et le Bazar, s'attache aux avantages d'une méthode de développement au travers de la réutilisation du code source.ravers de la réutilisation du code source.)
• Agriculture urbaine  + (Urban agriculture, urban farming, or urban … Urban agriculture, urban farming, or urban gardening is the practice of cultivating, processing, and distributing food in or around urban areas. It encompasses a complex and diverse mix of food production activities, including fisheries and forestry, in cities in both developed and developing countries. The term also applies to urban area activities of animal husbandry, aquaculture, beekeeping, and horticulture. These activities occur in peri-urban areas as well, although peri-urban agriculture may have different characteristics. Urban agriculture can reflect varying levels of economic and social development. It may be a social movement for sustainable communities, where organic growers, "foodies", and "locavores" form social networks founded on a shared ethos of nature and community holism. These networks can evolve when receiving formal institutional support, becoming integrated into local town planning as a "transition town" movement for sustainable urban development. For others, food security, nutrition, and income generation are key motivations for the practice. In both scenarios, more direct access to fresh vegetables, fruits, and meat products through urban agriculture can improve food security and food safety.can improve food security and food safety.)

• Agriculture urbaine  + (La agricultura urbana, también conocida co … La agricultura urbana, también conocida como periurbana (esto es cultivada en el entorno inmediato de las ciudades, a menudo en terrenos calificados o previstos para el crecimiento de la ciudad o la dotación de equipamientos o infraestructuras), es la práctica de la agricultura con cultivos dentro del área urbana. La tierra usada para las huertas urbanas puede ser privada, pública o residencial en espacios como balcones, paredes, techos de edificios, calles públicas o márgenes y antiguos sotos deforestados de los ríos. En muchas ocasiones la agricultura se practica en terrenos ocupados, de propiedades públicas o privadas en estado de abandono. La agricultura urbana se realiza para actividades de producción de alimentos. Contribuye a la soberanía alimentaria y a proporción de alimentos seguros de dos maneras: incrementando la cantidad de alimentos disponibles para los habitantes de ciudades, y en segundo lugar provee verduras y frutas frescas para los consumidores urbanos. Debido a que promueve el ahorro de energía, la producción local de alimentos, la agricultura urbana y periurbana son actividades de sostenibilidad. Puede sin embargo originar problemas y conflictos sociales en el caso de utilización de terrenos privados abandonados para la ubicación de "huertos familiares" clandestinos. Estas actuaciones incontroladas pueden también plantear problemas derivados de la falta de calidad de las aguas utilizadas para el riego, a menudo aguas residuales. Requiere además de un tipo de gestión que va más allá de los agronómico o incluso lo social, pues pasa a ser un aspecto de la .social, pues pasa a ser un aspecto de la .)

• Business Improvement District  + (A business improvement district (BID) is a … A business improvement district (BID) is a defined area within which businesses are required to pay an additional tax (or levy) in order to fund projects within the district's boundaries. The BID is often funded primarily through the levy but can also draw on other public and private funding streams. BIDs may go by other names, such as business improvement area (BIA), business revitalization zone (BRZ), community improvement district (CID), special services area (SSA), or special improvement district (SID). These districts typically fund services which are perceived by some businesses as being inadequately performed by government with its existing tax revenues, such as cleaning streets, providing security, making capital improvements, construction of pedestrian and streetscape enhancements, and marketing the area. The services provided by BIDs are supplemental to those already provided by the municipality. The revenue derives from a tax assessment on commercial property owners, and in some cases, residential property owners.n some cases, residential property owners.)
• Communauté  + (A community is a social unit (a group of l … A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as place, norms, religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a country, village, town, or neighbourhood) or in virtual space through communication platforms. Durable good relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties also define a sense of community, important to their identity, practice, and roles in social institutions such as family, home, work, government, society, or humanity at large. Although communities are usually small relative to personal social ties, "community" may also refer to large group affiliations such as national communities, international communities, and virtual communities. The English-language word "community" derives from the Old French comuneté (Modern French: communauté), which comes from the Latin communitas "community", "public spirit" (from Latin communis, "common"). Human communities may have intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, and risks in common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness.icipants and their degree of cohesiveness.)
• Community Land Trust  + (A community land trust (CLT) is a nonprofi … A community land trust (CLT) is a nonprofit corporation that holds land on behalf of a place-based community, while serving as the long-term steward for affordable housing, community gardens, civic buildings, commercial spaces and other community assets on behalf of a community. CLTs balance the needs of individuals who want security of tenure in occupying and using land and housing, with the needs of the surrounding community, striving to secure a variety of social purposes such as maintaining the affordability of local housing, preventing the displacement of vulnerable residents, and promoting economic and racial inclusion. Across the world, there is enormous diversity among CLTs in the ways that real property is owned, used, and operated and the ways that the CLT itself is guided and governed by people living on and around a CLT’s land. people living on and around a CLT’s land.)
• Fiducie foncière communautaire  + (A community land trust (CLT) is a nonprofi … A community land trust (CLT) is a nonprofit corporation that holds land on behalf of a place-based community, while serving as the long-term steward for affordable housing, community gardens, civic buildings, commercial spaces and other community assets on behalf of a community. CLTs balance the needs of individuals who want security of tenure in occupying and using land and housing, with the needs of the surrounding community, striving to secure a variety of social purposes such as maintaining the affordability of local housing, preventing the displacement of vulnerable residents, and promoting economic and racial inclusion. Across the world, there is enormous diversity among CLTs in the ways that real property is owned, used, and operated and the ways that the CLT itself is guided and governed by people living on and around a CLT’s land. people living on and around a CLT’s land.)
• Monnaie complémentaire  + (A complementary currency is a currency or … A complementary currency is a currency or medium of exchange that is not necessarily a national currency, but that is thought of as supplementing or complementing national currencies. Complementary currencies are usually not legal tender and their use is based on agreement between the parties exchanging the currency. According to Jérôme Blanc of Laboratoire d'Économie de la Firme et des Institutions, complementary currencies aim to protect, stimulate or orientate the economy. They may also be used to advance particular social, environmental, or political goals. When speaking about complementary currencies, a number of overlapping and often interchangeable terms are in use: local or community currencies are complementary currencies used within a locality or other form of community (such as business-based or online communities); regional currencies are similar to local currencies, but are used within a larger geographical region; and sectoral currencies are complementary currencies used within a single economic sector, such as education or health care. Many private currencies are complementary currencies issued by private businesses or organizations. Other terms include alternative currency, auxiliary currency, and microcurrency. Mutual credit is a form of alternative currency, and thus any form of lending that does not go through the banking system can be considered a form of alternative currency. Barters are another type of alternative currency. These are actually exchange systems, which trade only items, without the use of any currency whatsoever. Finally, LETS is a special form of barter that trades points for items. One point stands for one worker-hour of work, and is thus a Time-based currency.f work, and is thus a Time-based currency.)
• Coopérative  + (A cooperative (also known as co-operative, … A cooperative (also known as co-operative, co-op, or coop) is "an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically-controlled enterprise". Cooperatives are democratically controlled by their members, with each member having one vote in electing the board of directors.Cooperatives may include: </br>* businesses owned and managed by the people who consume their goods and/or services (a consumer cooperative) </br>* businesses where producers pool their output for their common benefit (a producer cooperative) </br>* organizations managed by the people who work there (a worker cooperative) </br>* businesses where members pool their purchasing power (a purchasing cooperative) </br>* multi-stakeholder or hybrid cooperatives that share ownership between different stakeholder groups. For example, care cooperatives where ownership is shared between both care-givers and receivers. Stakeholders might also include non-profits or investors. </br>* second- and third-tier cooperatives whose members are other cooperatives </br>* platform cooperatives that use a cooperatively owned and governed website, mobile app or a protocol to facilitate the sale of goods and services. Research published by the Worldwatch Institute found that in 2012 approximately one billion people in 96 countries had become members of at least one cooperative. The turnover of the largest three hundred cooperatives in the world reached $2.2 trillion. Cooperative businesses are typically more productive and economically resilient than many other forms of enterprise, with twice the number of co-operatives (80%) surviving their first five years compared with other business ownership models (41%) according to data from United Kingdom. The largest worker owned cooperative in the world, the Mondragon Corporation (founded by Catholic priest José María Arizmendiarrieta), has been in continuous operation since 1956. Cooperatives frequently have social goals, which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6.9% of their pre-tax profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2.4% for other rival supermarkets. Since 2002, cooperatives have been distinguishable on the Internet through the use of a .coop domain. In 2014, the International Co-operative Alliance (ICA) introduced the Cooperative Marque, meaning ICA cooperatives and WOCCU credit unions can also be identified through a coop ethical consumerism label. through a coop ethical consumerism label.)
• Co-operative  + (A cooperative (also known as co-operative, … A cooperative (also known as co-operative, co-op, or coop) is "an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically-controlled enterprise". Cooperatives are democratically controlled by their members, with each member having one vote in electing the board of directors.Cooperatives may include: </br>* businesses owned and managed by the people who consume their goods and/or services (a consumer cooperative) </br>* businesses where producers pool their output for their common benefit (a producer cooperative) </br>* organizations managed by the people who work there (a worker cooperative) </br>* businesses where members pool their purchasing power (a purchasing cooperative) </br>* multi-stakeholder or hybrid cooperatives that share ownership between different stakeholder groups. For example, care cooperatives where ownership is shared between both care-givers and receivers. Stakeholders might also include non-profits or investors. </br>* second- and third-tier cooperatives whose members are other cooperatives </br>* platform cooperatives that use a cooperatively owned and governed website, mobile app or a protocol to facilitate the sale of goods and services. Research published by the Worldwatch Institute found that in 2012 approximately one billion people in 96 countries had become members of at least one cooperative. The turnover of the largest three hundred cooperatives in the world reached $2.2 trillion. Cooperative businesses are typically more productive and economically resilient than many other forms of enterprise, with twice the number of co-operatives (80%) surviving their first five years compared with other business ownership models (41%) according to data from United Kingdom. The largest worker owned cooperative in the world, the Mondragon Corporation (founded by Catholic priest José María Arizmendiarrieta), has been in continuous operation since 1956. Cooperatives frequently have social goals, which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6.9% of their pre-tax profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2.4% for other rival supermarkets. Since 2002, cooperatives have been distinguishable on the Internet through the use of a .coop domain. In 2014, the International Co-operative Alliance (ICA) introduced the Cooperative Marque, meaning ICA cooperatives and WOCCU credit unions can also be identified through a coop ethical consumerism label. through a coop ethical consumerism label.)
• Coop  + (A cooperative (also known as co-operative, … A cooperative (also known as co-operative, co-op, or coop) is "an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically-controlled enterprise". Cooperatives are democratically controlled by their members, with each member having one vote in electing the board of directors.Cooperatives may include: </br>* businesses owned and managed by the people who consume their goods and/or services (a consumer cooperative) </br>* businesses where producers pool their output for their common benefit (a producer cooperative) </br>* organizations managed by the people who work there (a worker cooperative) </br>* businesses where members pool their purchasing power (a purchasing cooperative) </br>* multi-stakeholder or hybrid cooperatives that share ownership between different stakeholder groups. For example, care cooperatives where ownership is shared between both care-givers and receivers. Stakeholders might also include non-profits or investors. </br>* second- and third-tier cooperatives whose members are other cooperatives </br>* platform cooperatives that use a cooperatively owned and governed website, mobile app or a protocol to facilitate the sale of goods and services. Research published by the Worldwatch Institute found that in 2012 approximately one billion people in 96 countries had become members of at least one cooperative. The turnover of the largest three hundred cooperatives in the world reached $2.2 trillion. Cooperative businesses are typically more productive and economically resilient than many other forms of enterprise, with twice the number of co-operatives (80%) surviving their first five years compared with other business ownership models (41%) according to data from United Kingdom. The largest worker owned cooperative in the world, the Mondragon Corporation (founded by Catholic priest José María Arizmendiarrieta), has been in continuous operation since 1956. Cooperatives frequently have social goals, which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6.9% of their pre-tax profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2.4% for other rival supermarkets. Since 2002, cooperatives have been distinguishable on the Internet through the use of a .coop domain. In 2014, the International Co-operative Alliance (ICA) introduced the Cooperative Marque, meaning ICA cooperatives and WOCCU credit unions can also be identified through a coop ethical consumerism label. through a coop ethical consumerism label.)
• Économies du don  + (A gift economy or gift culture is a system … A gift economy or gift culture is a system of exchange where valuables are not sold, but rather given without an explicit agreement for immediate or future rewards. Social norms and customs govern giving a gift in a gift culture; although there is some expectation of reciprocity, gifts are not given in an explicit exchange of goods or services for money, or some other commodity or service. This contrasts with a barter economy or a market economy, where goods and services are primarily explicitly exchanged for value received. The nature of gift economies is the subject of a foundational debate in anthropology. Anthropological research into gift economies began with Bronisław Malinowski's description of the Kula ring in the Trobriand Islands during World War I. The Kula trade appeared to be gift-like since Trobrianders would travel great distances over dangerous seas to give what were considered valuable objects without any guarantee of a return. Malinowski's debate with the French anthropologist Marcel Mauss quickly established the complexity of "gift exchange" and introduced a series of technical terms such as reciprocity, inalienable possessions, and presentation to distinguish between the different forms of exchange. According to anthropologists Maurice Bloch and Jonathan Parry, it is the unsettled relationship between market and non-market exchange that attracts the most attention. Some authors argue that gift economies build community, while markets harm community relationships. Gift exchange is distinguished from other forms of exchange by a number of principles, such as the form of property rights governing the articles exchanged; whether gifting forms a distinct "sphere of exchange" that can be characterized as an "economic system"; and the character of the social relationship that the gift exchange establishes. Gift ideology in highly commercialized societies differs from the "prestations" typical of non-market societies. Gift economies also differ from related phenomena, such as common property regimes and the exchange of non-commodified labour.nd the exchange of non-commodified labour.)
• Paysages  + (A landscape is the visible features of an … A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or man-made features, often considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal. A landscape includes the physical elements of geophysically defined landforms such as (ice-capped) mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of land use, buildings, and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect a living synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity. The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates one region from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to people's lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park or wilderness. The Earth has a vast range of landscapes, including the icy landscapes of polar regions, mountainous landscapes, vast arid desert landscapes, islands, and coastal landscapes, densely forested or wooded landscapes including past boreal forests and tropical rainforests, and agricultural landscapes of temperate and tropical regions. The activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping.rea of land is referred to as landscaping.)
• Paysage  + (A landscape is the visible features of an … A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or man-made features, often considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal. A landscape includes the physical elements of geophysically defined landforms such as (ice-capped) mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of land use, buildings, and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect a living synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity. The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates one region from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to people's lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park or wilderness. The Earth has a vast range of landscapes, including the icy landscapes of polar regions, mountainous landscapes, vast arid desert landscapes, islands, and coastal landscapes, densely forested or wooded landscapes including past boreal forests and tropical rainforests, and agricultural landscapes of temperate and tropical regions. The activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping.rea of land is referred to as landscaping.)
• Communs de voisinage  + (A neighborhood commons is a shared communi … A neighborhood commons is a shared community space where neighborhood residents can come together to celebrate life, and young and old can be in each other’s presence but not in each other’s way. It can be a small-scale, multi-use facility, combining a sitting area, tot lot, playground, park, and community garden, designed and constructed on one or more vacant lots by residents, volunteer professionals, and youth work teams. The term "neighborhood commons" was first widely used by landscape architect, educator, and psychologist Karl Linn, who guided the creation of many such spaces during the 1960s through 1980s, primarily in the northeastern United States.imarily in the northeastern United States.)
• Services publics  + (A public service is any service intended t … A public service is any service intended to address specific needs pertaining to the aggregate members of a community. Public services are available to people within a government jurisdiction as provided directly through public sector agencies or via public financing to private businesses or voluntary organizations (or even as provided by family households, though terminology may differ depending on context). Other public services are undertaken on behalf of a government's residents or in the interest of its citizens. The term is associated with a social consensus (usually expressed through democratic elections) that certain services should be available to all, regardless of income, physical ability or mental acuity. Examples of such services include the fire brigade, police, air force, and paramedics (see also public service broadcasting). Even where public services are neither publicly provided nor publicly financed, they are usually subject to regulation going beyond that applying to most economic sectors for social and political reasons. Public policy, when made in the public's interest and with its motivations, is a type of public service. motivations, is a type of public service.)
• Économie de subsistance  + (A subsistence economy is an economy direct … A subsistence economy is an economy directed to basic subsistence (the provision of food, clothing, shelter) rather than to the market. Henceforth, "subsistence" is understood as supporting oneself at a minimum level. Often, the subsistence economy is moneyless and relies on natural resources to provide for basic needs through hunting, gathering, and agriculture. In a subsistence economy, economic surplus is minimal and only used to trade for basic goods, and there is no industrialization.In hunting and gathering societies, resources are often if not typically underused. In human history, before the first cities, all humans lived in a subsistence economy. As urbanization, civilization, and division of labor spread, various societies moved to other economic systems at various times. Some remain relatively unchanged, ranging from uncontacted peoples, to marginalized areas of developing countries, to some cultures that choose to retain a traditional economy. Capital can be generally defined as assets invested with the expectation that their value will increase, usually because there is the expectation of profit, rent, interest, royalties, capital gain or some other kind of return. However, this type of economy cannot usually become wealthy by virtue of the system, and instead requires further investments to stimulate economic growth. In other words, a subsistence economy only possesses enough goods to be used by a particular nation to maintain its existence and provides little to no surplus for other investments. It is common for a surplus capital to be invested in social capital such as feasting.vested in social capital such as feasting.)
• Altermondialisme  + (Alter-globalization (also known as alterna … Alter-globalization (also known as alternative globalization or alter-mundialization—from the French alter-mondialisation—and overlapping with the global justice movement) is a social movement whose proponents support global cooperation and interaction, but oppose what they describe as the negative effects of economic globalization, considering it to often work to the detriment of, or to not adequately promote, human values such as environmental and climate protection, economic justice, labor protection, protection of indigenous cultures, peace and civil liberties. The name may have been derived from a popular slogan of the movement, namely "another world is possible", which came out of the World Social Forum. The alter-globalization movement is a cooperative movement designed to "protest the direction and perceived negative economic, political, social, cultural and ecological consequences of neoliberal globalization". Many alter-globalists seek to avoid the "disestablishment of local economies and disastrous humanitarian consequences". Most members of this movement shun the label "anti-globalization" as pejorative and incorrect since they actively support human activity on a global scale and do not oppose economic globalization per se. Instead they see their movement as an alternative to what they term neo-liberal globalization in which international institutions (the World Trade Organization, World Bank, International Monetary Fund and the like) and major corporations devote themselves to enriching the developed world while giving little or no attention to what critics say are the detrimental effects of their actions on the people and environments of Less Developed Countries, countries whose governments are often too weak or too corrupt to resist or regulate them. This is not to be confused with proletarian internationalism as put forth by communists in that alter-globalists do not necessarily oppose the free market, but a subset of free-market practices characterized by certain business attitudes and political policies that they say often lead to violations of human rights. often lead to violations of human rights.)
• Allotment Garden  + (An allotment (British English), or in Nort … An allotment (British English), or in North America, a community garden, is a plot of land made available for individual, non-commercial gardening or growing food plants, so forming a kitchen garden away from the residence of the user. Such plots are formed by subdividing a piece of land into a few or up to several hundred parcels that are assigned to individuals or families. Such parcels are cultivated individually, contrary to other community garden types where the entire area is tended collectively by a group of people. In countries that do not use the term "allotment (garden)", a "community garden" may refer to individual small garden plots as well as to a single, large piece of land gardened collectively by a group of people. The term "victory garden" is also still sometimes used, especially when a community garden dates back to the First or Second World War. The individual size of a parcel typically suits the needs of a family, and often the plots include a shed for tools and shelter, and sometimes a hut for seasonal or weekend accommodation. The individual gardeners are usually organised in an allotment association, which leases or is granted the land from an owner who may be a public, private or ecclesiastical entity, and who usually stipulates that it be only used for gardening (i.e., growing vegetables, fruits and flowers), but not for permanent residential purposes (this is usually also required by zoning laws). The gardeners have to pay a small membership fee to the association, and have to abide by the corresponding constitution and by-laws. However, the membership entitles them to certain democratic rights.ntitles them to certain democratic rights.)
• Écoquartier  + (An ecodistrict or eco-district is a neolog … An ecodistrict or eco-district is a neologism associating the terms "district" and "eco" as an abbreviation of ecological.It designates an urban planning aiming to integrate objectives of sustainable development and social equity and reduce the ecological footprint of a neighborhood, urban area, or region. This notion insists on the consideration of the whole environmental issues by way of a collaborative process. In order to design ecodistricts, one needs to completely redesign their energy system plans. The usage of photovoltaic panels and electric vehicles is common.ic panels and electric vehicles is common.)
• Barcelona en Comú  + (Barcelona en Comú (Catalan for "Barcelona … Barcelona en Comú (Catalan for "Barcelona in Common") is a citizen platform launched in June 2014 that is currently governing in minority in the City of Barcelona. Its policy agenda includes defending social justice and community rights, promoting participatory democracy, introducing mechanisms to tackle corruption, and developing a new model of tourism for Barcelona.ping a new model of tourism for Barcelona.)
• Capitalisme  + (Capitalism is an economic system based on … Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price system, private property, property rights recognition, voluntary exchange, and wage labor. In a market economy, decision-making and investments are determined by owners of wealth, property, or ability to maneuver capital or production ability in capital and financial markets—whereas prices and the distribution of goods and services are mainly determined by competition in goods and services markets. Economists, historians, political economists and sociologists have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire or free-market capitalism, anarcho-capitalism, state capitalism and welfare capitalism. Different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership, obstacles to free competition and state-sanctioned social policies. The degree of competition in markets and the role of intervention and regulation as well as the scope of state ownership vary across different models of capitalism. The extent to which different markets are free and the rules defining private property are matters of politics and policy. Most of the existing capitalist economies are mixed economies that combine elements of free markets with state intervention and in some cases economic planning. Market economies have existed under many forms of government and in many different times, places and cultures. Modern capitalist societies developed in Western Europe in a process that led to the Industrial Revolution. Capitalist systems with varying degrees of direct government intervention have since become dominant in the Western world and continue to spread. Economic growth is a characteristic tendency of capitalist economies.teristic tendency of capitalist economies.)
• Climat  + (Climate is the long-term weather pattern i … Climate is the long-term weather pattern in an area, typically averaged over 30 years. More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation. In a broader sense, climate is the state of the components of the climate system, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere and the interactions between them. The climate of a location is affected by its latitude/longitude, terrain, altitude, land use and nearby water bodies and their currents. Climates can be classified according to the average and typical variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. The most widely used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification. The Thornthwaite system, in use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it. Finally, the Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region. Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates. Paleoclimatologists seek to explain climate variations for all parts of the Earth during any given geologic period, beginning with the time of the Earth's formation. Since very few direct observations of climate were available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables. They include non-biotic evidence—such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores—and biotic evidence—such as tree rings and coral. Climate models are mathematical models of past, present, and future climates. Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from various factors. Recent warming is discussed in global warming, which results in redistributions. For example, "a 3 °C [5 °F] change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300–400 km [190–250 mi] in latitude (in the temperate zone) or 500 m [1,600 ft] in elevation. Therefore, species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones."de in response to shifting climate zones.")
• Collaboration  + (Collaboration (from Latin com- "with" + la … Collaboration (from Latin com- "with" + laborare "to labor", "to work") is the process of two or more people, entities or organizations working together to complete a task or achieve a goal. Collaboration is similar to cooperation. Most collaboration requires leadership, although the form of leadership can be social within a decentralized and egalitarian group. Teams that work collaboratively often access greater resources, recognition and rewards when facing competition for finite resources. Structured methods of collaboration encourage introspection of behavior and communication. Such methods aim to increase the success of teams as they engage in collaborative problem-solving. Collaboration is present in opposing goals exhibiting the notion of adversarial collaboration, though this is not a common use of the term. In its applied sense, "(a) collaboration is a purposeful relationship in which all parties strategically choose to cooperate in order to accomplish a shared outcome." in order to accomplish a shared outcome.")
• Collective Action  + (Collective action refers to action taken t … Collective action refers to action taken together by a group of people whose goal is to enhance their condition and achieve a common objective. It is a term that has formulations and theories in many areas of the social sciences including psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science and economics.ropology, political science and economics.)
• Action collective  + (Collective action refers to action taken t … Collective action refers to action taken together by a group of people whose goal is to enhance their condition and achieve a common objective. It is a term that has formulations and theories in many areas of the social sciences including psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science and economics.ropology, political science and economics.)
• Association pour le maintien d'une agriculture paysanne  + (Community-supported agriculture (CSA model … Community-supported agriculture (CSA model) or cropsharing is a system that connects producers and consumers within the food system closer by allowing the consumer to subscribe to the harvest of a certain farm or group of farms. It is an alternative socioeconomic model of agriculture and food distribution that allows the producer and consumer to share the risks of farming. The model is a subcategory of civic agriculture that has an overarching goal of strengthening a sense of community through local markets. In return for subscribing to a harvest, subscribers receive either a weekly or bi-weekly box of produce or other farm goods. This includes in-season fruits, vegetables, and can expand to dried goods, eggs, milk, meat, etc. Typically, farmers try to cultivate a relationship with subscribers by sending weekly letters of what is happening on the farm, inviting them for harvest, or holding an open-farm event. Some CSAs provide for contributions of labor in lieu of a portion of subscription costs. The term CSA is mostly used in the United States and Canada, but a variety of similar production and economic sub-systems are in use worldwide, in Austria and Germany as Solidarische Landwirtschaft ("solidarity farming") and in the UK mainly in the vegetable box scheme.the UK mainly in the vegetable box scheme.)
• Patrimoine culturel  + (Cultural heritage is the heritage of tangi … Cultural heritage is the heritage of tangible and intangible heritage assets of a group or society that is inherited from past generations. Not all heritages of past generations are "heritage"; rather, heritage is a product of selection by society. Cultural heritage includes tangible culture (such as buildings, monuments, landscapes, books, works of art, and artifacts), intangible culture (such as folklore, traditions, language, and knowledge), and natural heritage (including culturally significant landscapes, and biodiversity). The term is often used in connection with issues relating to the protection of Indigenous intellectual property. The deliberate act of keeping cultural heritage from the present for the future is known as preservation (American English) or conservation (British English), which cultural and historical ethnic museums and cultural centers promote, though these terms may have more specific or technical meanings in the same contexts in the other dialect. Preserved heritage has become an anchor of the global tourism industry, a major contributor of economic value to local communities. Legal protection of cultural property comprises a number of international agreements and national laws.United Nations, UNESCO and Blue Shield International deal with the protection of cultural heritage. This also applies to the integration of United Nations peacekeeping.ntegration of United Nations peacekeeping.)