Rechercher par propriété

Cette page fournit une simple interface de navigation pour trouver des entités décrites par une propriété et une valeur nommée. D’autres interfaces de recherche disponibles comprennent la page recherche de propriété, et le constructeur de requêtes « ask ».

Une liste de toutes les pages qui ont la propriété « Text« Text » est une propriété prédéfinie fournie par <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.semantic-mediawiki.org/wiki/Help:Special_properties">MediaWiki Sémantique</a> et qui représente un texte de longueur quelconque. » avec la valeur « Surveillance is the monitoring of behavior, many activities, or information for the purpose of information gathering, influencing, managing or directing. This can include observation from a distance by means of electronic equipment, such as closed-circuit television (CCTV), or interception of electronically transmitted information like Internet traffic. It can also include simple technical methods, such as human intelligence gathering and postal interception. Surveillance is used by citizens for protecting their neighborhoods. And by governments for intelligence gathering - including espionage, prevention of crime, the protection of a process, person, group or object, or the investigation of crime. It is also used by criminal organizations to plan and commit crimes, and by businesses to gather intelligence on criminals, their competitors, suppliers or customers. Religious organisations charged with detecting heresy and heterodoxy may also carry out surveillance.Auditors carry out a form of surveillance. A byproduct of surveillance is that it can unjustifiably violate people's privacy and is often criticized by civil liberties activists. Liberal democracies may have laws that seek to restrict governmental and private use of surveillance, whereas authoritarian governments seldom have any domestic restrictions. Espionage is by definition covert and typically illegal according to the rules of the observed party, whereas most types of surveillance are overt and are considered legitimate. International espionage seems to be common among all types of countries. ». Puisqu’il n’y a que quelques résultats, les valeurs proches sont également affichées.

Affichage de 26 résultats à partir du nº 1.

Propriété : Valeur :

Liste de résultats

Énergie + (In physics, energy (from Ancient Greek: ἐν … In physics, energy (from Ancient Greek: ἐνέργεια, enérgeia, “activity”) is the quantitative property that is to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of heat and light. Energy is a conserved quantity—the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The unit of measurement for energy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule (J). Common forms of energy include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the potential energy stored by an object (for instance due to its position in a field), the elastic energy stored in a solid object, chemical energy associated with chemical reactions, the radiant energy carried by electromagnetic radiation, and the internal energy contained within a thermodynamic system. All living organisms constantly take in and release energy. Due to mass–energy equivalence, any object that has mass when stationary (called rest mass) also has an equivalent amount of energy whose form is called rest energy, and any additional energy (of any form) acquired by the object above that rest energy will increase the object's total mass just as it increases its total energy. Human civilization requires energy to function, which it gets from energy resources such as fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy. The Earth's climate and ecosystems processes are driven by the energy the planet receives from the Sun (although a small amount is also contributed by geothermal energy).is also contributed by geothermal energy).)
Propriété intellectuelle + (Intellectual property (IP) is a category o … Intellectual property (IP) is a category of property that includes intangible creations of the human intellect. There are many types of intellectual property, and some countries recognize more than others. The best-known types are patents, copyrights, trademarks, and trade secrets. The modern concept of intellectual property developed in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. The term "intellectual property" began to be used in the 19th century, though it was not until the late 20th century that intellectual property became commonplace in the majority of the world's legal systems. The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods. To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time. This gives economic incentive for their creation, because it allows people to benefit from the information and intellectual goods they create, and allows them to protect their ideas and prevent copying. These economic incentives are expected to stimulate innovation and contribute to the technological progress of countries, which depends on the extent of protection granted to innovators. The intangible nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is "indivisible", since an unlimited number of people can "consume" an intellectual good without its being depleted. Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from problems of appropriation: Landowners can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, but producers of information or literature can usually do little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent the goods' wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law.focus of modern intellectual property law.)
Connaissance + (Knowledge can be defined as awareness of f … Knowledge can be defined as awareness of facts or as practical skills, and may also refer to familiarity with objects or situations. Knowledge of facts, also called propositional knowledge, is often defined as true belief that is distinct from opinion or guesswork by virtue of justification. While there is wide agreement among philosophers that propositional knowledge is a form of true belief, many controversies in philosophy focus on justification: whether it is needed at all, how to understand it, and whether something else besides it is needed. These controversies intensified due to a series of thought experiments by Edmund Gettier and have provoked various alternative definitions. Some of them deny that justification is necessary and replace it, for example, with reliability or the manifestation of cognitive virtues. Others contend that justification is needed but formulate additional requirements, for example, that no defeaters of the belief are present or that the person would not have the belief if it was false. Knowledge can be produced in many different ways. The most important source of empirical knowledge is perception, which refers to the usage of the senses. Many theorists also include introspection as a source of knowledge, not of external physical objects, but of one's own mental states. Other sources often discussed include memory, rational intuition, inference, and testimony. According to foundationalism, some of these sources are basic in the sense that they can justify beliefs without depending on other mental states. This claim is rejected by coherentists, who contend that a sufficient degree of coherence among all the mental states of the believer is necessary for knowledge. Many different aspects of knowledge are investigated and it plays a role in various disciplines. It is the primary subject of the field of epistemology, which studies what we know, how we come to know it, and what it means to know something. The problem of the value of knowledge concerns the question of why knowledge is more valuable than mere true belief. Philosophical skepticism is the controversial thesis that we lack any form of knowledge or that knowledge is impossible. Formal epistemology studies, among other things, the rules governing how knowledge and related states behave and in what relations they stand to each other. Science tries to acquire knowledge using the scientific method, which is based on repeatable experimentation, observation, and measurement. Many religions hold that humans should seek knowledge and that God or the divine is the source of knowledge. or the divine is the source of knowledge.)
Agriculture biologique + (L'agriculture biologique est une méthode d … L'agriculture biologique est une méthode de production agricole qui exclut le recours à la plupart des produits chimiques de synthèse, utilisés notamment par l'agriculture industrielle et intensive depuis le début du XXe siècle, les organismes génétiquement modifiés par transgénèse, et la conservation des cultures par irradiation. La fertilisation du sol et la protection des plantes doivent donc être assurées en privilégiant au maximum l'utilisation d'engrais et de pesticides issus ou dérivés de substances naturelles. Ces derniers sont appelés biopesticides. Les pratiques d'agriculture biologique sont soumises à des normes contraignantes permettant la labellisation des produits et un prix de vente généralement plus élevé. Les motivations des agriculteurs et des consommateurs peuvent être de meilleurs revenus, une meilleure santé au travail, la protection de l'environnement ou des produits perçus comme plus sains. L'élevage d'animaux des fermes biologiques doit respecter des conditions de vie plus respectueuses du bien-être animal que l'agriculture traditionnelle. Définie depuis les années 1920, l'agriculture biologique est organisée à l'échelle mondiale depuis 1972 (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements – IFOAM) et reconnue depuis 1999 dans le Codex Alimentarius, un programme commun de l'Organisation des Nations unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture (FAO) et de l'Organisation mondiale de la santé. L'agriculture biologique est une des formes d'agriculture durable ; l'appellation « biologique », ou son abréviation « bio », est protégée légalement et implique une certification. Plusieurs labels internationaux de reconnaissance de ce type d'agriculture ont été définis. Depuis 1990, le marché des aliments et autres produits biologiques a augmenté rapidement, atteignant 63 milliards de dollars dans le monde en 2012. Cette demande s'est accompagnée d'une augmentation de la surface des terres agricoles destinées à l'agriculture biologique, qui s'est accrue de 8,9 % par an en moyenne entre 2001 et 2011. Dans le monde, plus de 37,2 millions d'hectares étaient consacrés à l'agriculture biologique à la fin de l'année 2011, soit 0,9 % des terres agricoles des 162 pays pris en compte dans le calcul. En 2015, l'agriculture biologique occupait 6,2 % de la superficie agricole utilisée de l'Union européenne.e agricole utilisée de l'Union européenne.)
Logiciel open source + (La désignation open source /ˈoʊpən sɔɹs/, … La désignation open source /ˈoʊpən sɔɹs/, ou code source ouvert, s'applique aux logiciels (et s'étend maintenant aux œuvres de l'esprit) dont la licence respecte des critères précisément établis par l'Open Source Initiative, c'est-à-dire les possibilités de libre redistribution, d'accès au code source et de création de travaux dérivés. Mis à la disposition du grand public, ce code source est généralement le résultat d'une collaboration entre programmeurs. Le mouvement open source s'est développé en parallèle du mouvement du logiciel libre qui prône des valeurs philosophiques et politiques de justice, l'open source se focalisant sur des considérations techniques de développement logiciel et ne s'opposant pas à l'utilisation de systèmes intégrés combinant logiciels propriétaires et logiciels open source. Dans la pratique toutefois, la très grande majorité des logiciels open source sont également libres, l'exception la plus notable étant les logiciels pratiquant la tivoïsation. L’open source a déjà investi tous les grands domaines du système d’information des administrations françaises : environnements serveurs, domaines applicatifs, outils d’ingénierie, solutions de réseaux et sécurité. Les solutions open source sont désormais au même rang que les solutions propriétaires dans le paysage des logiciels du secteur public. Les décideurs effectuent d’ailleurs de plus en plus leur choix à partir d’un jugement éclairé, en comparant systématiquement solutions propriétaires et solutions libres.lutions propriétaires et solutions libres.)
Justice sociale + (La justice sociale est une construction mo … La justice sociale est une construction morale et politique qui vise à l'égalité des droits et conçoit la nécessité d'une solidarité collective entre les personnes d'une société donnée. L'entrée correspondant à ce terme dans le Dictionnaire des sciences économiques et sociales le fait reposer théoriquement sur deux principes. Soit, un premier principe d'équité, avec lequel il ne faut pas confondre celui de justice, et qui s'entend plutôt comme le principe du « à chacun son dû ». Dans ce cas, la part individuelle revenant à celui qui bénéficie du traitement équitable doit être conforme aux attentes les plus généralement exprimées dans une société à l'égard des autres parts individuelles. Soit, un second principe, dit moral, d'une prémisse d'égalité entre tous les membres composants la société. Dans ce cas, la notion de justice sociale est essentiellement une projection vers une société plus juste, en admettant qu'il y ait toujours des injustices. On peut le voir soit comme une utopie, soit comme une démarche allant vers plus de progressisme. Ce premier partage définitoire permet de tracer plusieurs règles générales d'application de la justice sociale. La justice sociale est dite commutative quand elle est fondée sur l'idée que la pure réciprocité doit exister entre les membres et la société (chacun reçoit en contrepartie mesurée d'un effort fourni). Elle sera, en revanche, qualifiée de distributive, si elle vise à donner à chacun la part qui lui revient pour vivre décemment, en se réservant de préciser quels critères ou catégories seront utilisés pour élaborer cette distribution (économique, sociale, culturelle). Les actions ayant pour objectif de rétablir une justice sociale visent à élaborer un meilleur système de répartitions, où chaque individu a et conserve les mêmes chances de réussite tout au long des situations de sa vie d'individu. Ainsi, on parle parfois d'« égalité des chances ». Les corrections nécessaires peuvent être sociales, financières ou culturelles. La justice sociale peut aussi se définir de manière négative : est injuste ce qui n'est pas acceptable socialement. Par exemple, les inégalités de salaires entre métiers de qualifications différentes sont le plus souvent considérées comme justes, parce qu'elles sont socialement acceptées par la majorité. Il existe une distinction entre justice sociale (ou équité) et égalité. La justice sociale est aussi une notion qui évolue dans le temps, ce qui est juste socialement peut devenir injuste si le contexte change (voir sociologie de la justice sociale). Dans son ouvrage majeur Théorie de la justice de 1971, le libéral John Rawls écrit qu'une société est juste si elle respecte trois principes, dans l'ordre : 1. * garantie des libertés de base égales pour tous ; 2. * égalité des chances ; 3. * maintien des seules inégalités qui profitent aux plus défavorisés.alités qui profitent aux plus défavorisés.)
Propriété intellectuelle + (La propriété intellectuelle est le domaine … La propriété intellectuelle est le domaine comportant l'ensemble des droits exclusifs accordés sur des créations intellectuelles.Elle comporte deux branches : * la propriété littéraire et artistique, qui s'applique aux œuvres de l'esprit, est composée du droit d'auteur et des droits voisins ; * la propriété industrielle, qui regroupe elle-même, d'une part, les créations utilitaires, comme le brevet d'invention et le certificat d'obtention végétale ou au contraire un droit de protection sui generis des obtentions végétales, et, d'autre part, les signes distinctifs, notamment la marque commerciale, le nom de domaine et l'appellation d'origine. Elle comprend un droit moral (extra-patrimonial) qui est le seul droit attaché à la personne de l'auteur de l’œuvre qui soit perpétuel, inaliénable et imprescriptible, et qui s'applique donc post mortem, même après que l'œuvre est placée dans le domaine public (soit 70 ans à compter du 1er janvier de l'année suivant la mort de l’auteur). C'est l'œuvre résultante, et sa forme, qui sont protégées, non les idées et les informations qui en sont à l'origine, et qui, elles, restent libres de droit. Ainsi, le « résumé » d'une œuvre écrite, ou la citation d'un titre dans une bibliographie ne sont pas considérés comme un emprunt à ce qui est protégé par le droit d'auteur dans l'œuvre. Certaines personnalités du mouvement du logiciel libre dénoncent l'escroquerie sémantique du concept de « propriété intellectuelle », de même le récent brevetage du vivant a suscité de vives controverses éthiques et juridiques.vives controverses éthiques et juridiques.)
Souveraineté alimentaire + (La souveraineté alimentaire est un concept … La souveraineté alimentaire est un concept développé et présenté pour la première fois par Via Campesina lors du Sommet de l'alimentation organisé par la FAO à Rome en 1996. Il a depuis été repris et précisé par divers courants altermondialistes lors de différents Forums Sociaux Mondiaux. La souveraineté alimentaire est présentée comme un droit international qui laisse la possibilité aux populations, aux États ou aux groupes d'États de mettre en place les politiques agricoles les mieux adaptées à leurs populations sans qu'elles puissent avoir un effet négatif sur les populations d'autres pays. Elle se construit à l'origine dans l'objectif de permettre le respect des droits des paysans. La souveraineté alimentaire est donc une rupture par rapport à l'organisation actuelle des marchés agricoles mise en œuvre par l'OMC. Complémentaire du concept de sécurité alimentaire qui concerne la quantité d'aliments disponibles, l'accès des populations à ceux-ci, l'utilisation biologique des aliments et le problème de la prévention et gestion des crises, la souveraineté alimentaire accorde en plus une importance aux conditions sociales et environnementales de production des aliments. Elle prône un accès plus équitable à la terre pour les paysans pauvres, au moyen si nécessaire d'une réforme agraire et de mécanismes de sécurisation des droits d'usage du foncier. Au niveau local, les défenseurs de la souveraineté alimentaire favorisent le maintien d'une agriculture de proximité destinée en priorité à alimenter les marchés régionaux et nationaux. Les cultures vivrières et l'agriculture familiale de petite échelle sont présentées par les défenseurs de la souveraineté alimentaire comme étant d'une grande efficacité économique[réf. nécessaire], sociale[réf. nécessaire] et environnementale[réf. nécessaire], comparée à l'agriculture industrielle et les plantations de grande échelle où travaillent de nombreux salariés. La place et le rôle des femmes sont privilégiés. La souveraineté alimentaire privilégie des techniques agricoles qui favorisent l'autonomie des paysans. Elle est donc favorable à l'agriculture biologique et à l'agriculture paysanne. Elle refuse l'utilisation des plantes transgéniques en agriculture. des plantes transgéniques en agriculture.)
Sécheresse + (La sécheresse ou sècheresse \sɛʃ.ʁɛs\ défi … La sécheresse ou sècheresse \sɛʃ.ʁɛs\ définit l'état d'un environnement confronté à un manque d'eau significativement long et important pour qu'il ait des impacts sur la flore (naturelle ou cultivée), la faune (sauvage ou d'élevage) et les sociétés. Sécheresse ne doit pas être confondu avec aridité. Une région aride peut connaître des épisodes de sécheresse. Le déficit hydrique est une situation naturelle du point de vue de la variabilité climatique (par exemple, les périodes glaciaires/interglaciaires du Quaternaire, les cycles El Niño / La Niña, etc.) mais, selon certains climatologues certaines situations de déficit hydrique sont amplifiées (durée, extension spatiale, intensité) par l'émission humaine de gaz à effet de serre. Il fait suite à un déficit pluviométrique, sur de longues périodes durant lesquelles les précipitations sont anormalement faibles ou insuffisantes pour maintenir l'humidité du sol et l'hygrométrie normale de l'air. Il peut être aggravé ou expliqué par des pompages, une baisse du niveau de la nappe phréatique, l'érosion et la dégradation des sols (l'humus favorise la rétention de l'eau, la coupe à blanc de zones forestières dans la région de l'Amazonie, par exemple, entraîne rapidement la perte de cet humus essentiel à la rétention de l'eau et cause une désertification accélérée d'origine anthropique), une augmentation de l'évapotranspiration induite par des plantations consommatrices d'eau (peupliers, maïs). La sécheresse peut détruire les récoltes (partiellement ou totalement) et tuer les animaux d'élevage, et parfois sauvages. Elle devient alors un facteur de famine régionale et d'exode, souvent accompagnée de troubles sociaux voire de conflits armés en particulier dans les régions de peu de ressources économiques. La sécheresse n'est donc pas qu'un phénomène physique ou climatique objectif. C'est aussi une notion relative qui reflète l'écart entre la disponibilité de l'eau et la demande en eau de l'homme (savoir les applications agricoles – agriculture, du bétail – industrielles, domestiques de l'eau – hygiène, alimentation, lavage – dont certains usages d'une nécessité secondaire – piscine, arrosage des gazons, lavage de voiture – , etc.). Ceci rend toute définition de la sécheresse relative au contexte géopolitique et sociologique ; l'état « normal » de disponibilité de l'eau change selon les zones biogéographiques et les besoins réels ou ressentis des individus et des sociétés. La sécheresse s'initie par une sécheresse météorologique se produisent généralement lorsqu'un anticyclone s'installe durablement au-dessus d'une région à cause d'une situation de blocage. Les hautes pressions persistantes empêchent donc toute intrusion d'une perturbation atmosphérique et peuvent alors mener la région surplombée par celles-ci à une longue période de beau temps et donc avec un peu voire sans précipitations.onc avec un peu voire sans précipitations.)
Développement durable + (Le développement durable (en anglais : sus … Le développement durable (en anglais : sustainable development, parfois traduit par développement soutenable) est une conception du développement qui s'inscrit dans une perspective de long terme et en intégrant les contraintes écologiques et sociales à l'économie. Selon la définition donnée dans le rapport de la Commission mondiale sur l'environnement et le développement de l'Organisation des Nations unies, dit rapport Brundtland, où cette expression est apparue pour la première fois en 1987, « le développement durable est un développement qui répond aux besoins du présent sans compromettre la capacité des générations futures de répondre aux leurs ». Cette notion s'est imposée à la suite de la prise de conscience progressive, depuis les années 1970, de la finitude écologique de la Terre, liée aux limites planétaires sur le long terme. La notion fait toutefois l'objet de , notamment de la part des tenants de la décroissance, pour lesquels cette notion reste trop liée à celle de la croissance économique, mais aussi de la part de ceux qui y voient un frein au développement.ux qui y voient un frein au développement.)
Ressources naturelles + (Natural resources are resources that are d … Natural resources are resources that are drawn from nature and used with few modifications. This includes the sources of valued characteristics such as commercial and industrial use, aesthetic value, scientific interest and cultural value. On Earth, it includes sunlight, atmosphere, water, land, all minerals along with all vegetation, and wildlife. Natural resources is a part of humanity's natural heritage or protected in nature reserves. Particular areas (such as the rainforest in Fatu-Hiva) often feature biodiversity and geodiversity in their ecosystems. Natural resources may be classified in different ways. Natural resources are materials and components (something that can be used) that can be found within the environment. Every man-made product is composed of natural resources (at its fundamental level). A natural resource may exist as a separate entity such as fresh water, air, as well as any living organism such as a fish, or it may be transformed by extractivist industries into an economically useful form that must be processed to obtain the resource such as metal ores, rare-earth elements, petroleum, timber and most forms of energy. Some resources are renewable resource, which means that they can be used at a certain rate and natural processes will restore them, whereas many extractive industries rely heavily on non-renewable resources that can only be extracted once. Natural-resource allocations can be at the center of many economic and political confrontations both within and between countries. This is particularly true during periods of increasing scarcity and shortages (depletion and overconsumption of resources). Resource extraction is also a major source of human rights violations and environmental damage. The Sustainable Development Goals and other international development agendas frequently focus on creating more sustainable resource extraction, with some scholars and researchers focused on creating economic models, such as circular economy, that rely less on resource extraction, and more on reuse, recycling and renewable resources that can be sustainably managed.resources that can be sustainably managed.)
Informations + (News is information about current events. … News is information about current events. This may be provided through many different media: word of mouth, printing, postal systems, broadcasting, electronic communication, or through the testimony of observers and witnesses to events. News is sometimes called "hard news" to differentiate it from soft media. Common topics for news reports include war, government, politics, education, health, the environment, economy, business, fashion, entertainment, and sport, as well as quirky or unusual events. Government proclamations, concerning royal ceremonies, laws, taxes, public health, and criminals, have been dubbed news since ancient times. Technological and social developments, often driven by government communication and espionage networks, have increased the speed with which news can spread, as well as influenced its content. Throughout history, people have transported new information through oral means. Having developed in China over centuries, newspapers became established in Europe during the early modern period. In the 20th century, radio and television became an important means of transmitting news. Whilst in the 21st, the internet has also begun to play a similar role.net has also begun to play a similar role.)
Open Data + (Open data is data that is openly accessibl … Open data is data that is openly accessible, exploitable, editable and shared by anyone for any purpose. Open data is licensed under an open license. The goals of the open data movement are similar to those of other "open(-source)" movements such as open-source software, hardware, open content, open specifications, open education, open educational resources, open government, open knowledge, open access, open science, and the open web. The growth of the open data movement is paralleled by a rise in intellectual property rights. The philosophy behind open data has been long established (for example in the Mertonian tradition of science), but the term "open data" itself is recent, gaining popularity with the rise of the Internet and World Wide Web and, especially, with the launch of open-data government initiatives such as Data.gov, Data.gov.uk and Data.gov.in. Open data can be linked data - referred to as linked open data. One of the most important forms of open data is open government data (OGD), which is a form of open data created by ruling government institutions. Open government data's importance is born from it being a part of citizens' everyday lives, down to the most routine/mundane tasks that are seemingly far removed from government. The abbreviation FAIR/O data is sometimes used to indicate that the dataset or database in question complies with the principles of FAIR data and carries an explicit data‑capable open license.ies an explicit data‑capable open license.)
Logiciel open source + (Open-source software (OSS) is computer sof … Open-source software (OSS) is computer software that is released under a license in which the copyright holder grants users the rights to use, study, change, and distribute the software and its source code to anyone and for any purpose. Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. Open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration, meaning any capable user is able to participate online in development, making the number of possible contributors indefinite. The ability to examine the code facilitates public trust in the software. Open-source software development can bring in diverse perspectives beyond those of a single company. A 2008 report by the Standish Group stated that adoption of open-source software models has resulted in savings of about $60 billion per year for consumers. Open source code can be used for studying and allows capable end users to adapt software to their personal needs in a similar way user scripts and custom style sheets allow for web sites, and eventually publish the modification as a fork for users with similar preferences, and directly submit possible improvements as pull requests.it possible improvements as pull requests.)
P2P + (Peer-to-peer (P2P) computing or networking … Peer-to-peer (P2P) computing or networking is a distributed application architecture that partitions tasks or workloads between peers. Peers are equally privileged, equipotent participants in the network. They are said to form a peer-to-peer network of nodes. Peers make a portion of their resources, such as processing power, disk storage or network bandwidth, directly available to other network participants, without the need for central coordination by servers or stable hosts. Peers are both suppliers and consumers of resources, in contrast to the traditional client–server model in which the consumption and supply of resources are divided. While P2P systems had previously been used in many application domains, the architecture was popularized by the file sharing system Napster, originally released in 1999. The concept has inspired new structures and philosophies in many areas of human interaction. In such social contexts, peer-to-peer as a meme refers to the egalitarian social networking that has emerged throughout society, enabled by Internet technologies in general.abled by Internet technologies in general.)
Pirate + (Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal vi … Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable goods. Those who conduct acts of piracy are called pirates, while the dedicated ships that pirates use are called pirate ships. The earliest documented instances of piracy were in the 14th century BC, when the Sea Peoples, a group of ocean raiders, attacked the ships of the Aegean and Mediterranean civilisations. Narrow channels which funnel shipping into predictable routes have long created opportunities for piracy, as well as for privateering and commerce raiding. Historic examples include the waters of Gibraltar, the Strait of Malacca, Madagascar, the Gulf of Aden, and the English Channel, whose geographic structures facilitated pirate attacks. Privateering uses similar methods to piracy, but the captain acts under orders of the state authorising the capture of merchant ships belonging to an enemy nation, making it a legitimate form of war-like activity by non-state actors. A land-based parallel is the ambushing of travelers by bandits and brigands in highways and mountain passes. While the term can include acts committed in the air, on land (especially across national borders or in connection with taking over and robbing a car or train), or in other major bodies of water or on a shore, in cyberspace, as well as the fictional possibility of space piracy, it generally refers to maritime piracy. It does not normally include crimes committed against people traveling on the same vessel as the perpetrator (e.g. one passenger stealing from others on the same vessel). Piracy or pirating is the name of a specific crime under customary international law and also the name of a number of crimes under the municipal law of a number of states. In the early 21st century, seaborne piracy against transport vessels remains a significant issue (with estimated worldwide losses of US$16 billion per year in 2004), particularly in the waters between the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, off the Somali coast, and also in the Strait of Malacca and Singapore. Currently, pirates armed with automatic weapons, such as assault rifles, and machine guns, grenades and rocket propelled grenades use small motorboats to attack and board ships, a tactic that takes advantage of the small number of crew members on modern cargo vessels and transport ships. They also use larger vessels, known as "mother ships", to supply the smaller motorboats. The international community is facing many challenges in bringing modern pirates to justice, as these attacks often occur in international waters. Some nations have used their naval forces to protect private ships from pirate attacks and to pursue pirates, and some private vessels use armed security guards, high-pressure water cannons, or sound cannons to repel boarders, and use radar to avoid potential threats. A romanticised version of piracy in the Age of Sail has long been a part of Western pop culture. Captain Charles Johnson's A General History of the Pyrates, published in London in 1724, contained biographies of several pirates of the "golden age" and brought them to public attention. Pirates of the era have been further popularised and stereotyped by many subsequent works of fiction, most notably by the novels Treasure Island (1883) and Peter Pan (1911), two film adaptions of Treasure Island (1934 and 1950) and, more recently, by the Pirates of the Caribbean film franchise, which began in 2003.bbean film franchise, which began in 2003.)
Pollution + (Pollution is the introduction of contamina … Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light). Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Although environmental pollution can be caused by natural events, the word pollution generally implies that the contaminants have an anthropogenic source – that is, a source created by human activities. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. In 2015, pollution killed nine million people worldwide (one in six deaths). This remained unchanged in 2019, with little real progress against pollution being identifiable. Air pollution accounted for 3⁄4 of these earlier deaths. Major forms of pollution include air pollution, light pollution, litter, noise pollution, plastic pollution, soil contamination, radioactive contamination, thermal pollution, visual pollution, and water pollution.on, visual pollution, and water pollution.)
Politiques publiques + (Public policy is an institutionalized prop … Public policy is an institutionalized proposal or a decided set of elements like laws, regulations, guidelines, and actions to solve or address relevant and real-world problems, guided by a conception and often implemented by programs. Public policy can be considered to be the sum of government direct and indirect activities and has been conceptualized in a variety of ways. They are created and/or enacted on behalf of the public typically by a government. Sometimes they are made by nonprofit organisations or are made in co-production with communities or citizens, which can include potential experts, scientists, engineers and stakeholders or scientific data, or sometimes use some of their results. They are typically made by policy-makers affiliated with (in democratic polities) currently elected politicians. A popular way of understanding and engaging in public policy is through a series of stages known as "the policy cycle". The characterization of particular stages can vary, but a basic sequence is: agenda setting – formulation – legitimation – implementation – evaluation. Officials considered as policymakers bear responsibility to reflect the interests of a host of different stakeholders. Policy design entails conscious and deliberate effort to define policy aims and map them instrumentally. Academics and other experts in policy studies have developed a range of tools and approaches to help in this task.tools and approaches to help in this task.)
Recherche + (Research is "creative and systematic work … Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge". It involves the collection, organization and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular attentiveness to controlling sources of bias and error. These activities are characterized by a to accounting and controlling for biases in t. A research project may be an expansion on past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, and the research and development (R&D) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms of research: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, life, technological, etc. The scientific study of research practices is known as meta-research. research practices is known as meta-research.)
Science + (Science is a systematic endeavor that buil … Science is a systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Science may be as old as the human species, and some of the earliest archeological evidence for scientific reasoning is tens of thousands of years old. The earliest written records in the history of science come from Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in around 3000 to 1200 BCE. Their contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine entered and shaped Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Western Europe during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the Middle Ages, but was preserved in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age and later by the efforts of Byzantine Greek scholars who brought Greek manuscripts from the dying Byzantine Empire to Western Europe in the Renaissance. The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived "natural philosophy", which was later transformed by the Scientific Revolution that began in the 16th century as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions. The scientific method soon played a greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the 19th century that many of the institutional and professional features of science began to take shape; along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science". Modern science is typically divided into three major branches: natural sciences (e.g., biology, chemistry, and physics), which study the physical world; the social sciences (e.g., economics, psychology, and sociology), which study individuals and societies; and the formal sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science), which study formal systems, governed by axioms and rules. There is disagreement whether the formal sciences are science disciplines, because they do not rely on empirical evidence. Applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as in engineering and medicine. New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems. Contemporary scientific research is highly collaborative and is usually done by teams in academic and research institutions, government agencies, and companies. The practical impact of their work has led to the emergence of science policies that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritizing the ethical and moral development of commercial products, armaments, health care, public infrastructure, and environmental protection.rastructure, and environmental protection.)
Principe de subsidiarité + (Subsidiarity is a principle of social orga … Subsidiarity is a principle of social organization that holds that social and political issues should be dealt with at the most immediate or local level that is consistent with their resolution. The Oxford English Dictionary defines subsidiarity as "the principle that a central authority should have a subsidiary function, performing only those tasks which cannot be performed at a more local level". The concept is applicable in the fields of government, political science, neuropsychology, cybernetics, management and in military command (mission command). The OED adds that the term "subsidiarity" in English follows the early German usage of "Subsidiarität". More distantly, it is derived from the Latin verb subsidio (to aid or help), and the related noun subsidium (aid or assistance). The development of the concept of subsidiarity has roots in the natural law philosophy of Thomas Aquinas and was mediated by the social scientific theories of Luigi Taparelli, SJ, in his 1840–43 natural law treatise on the human person in society. In that work, Taparelli established the criteria of just social order, which he referred to as "hypotactical right" and which came to be termed subsidiarity following German influences. Another origin of the concept is in the writings of Calvinist law-philosopher Johannes Althaus who used the word "subsidia" in 1603. As a principle of just social order, it became one of the pillars of modern Catholic social teaching. Subsidiarity is a general principle of European Union law. In the United States of America, Article VI, Paragraph 2 of the constitution of the United States is known as the Supremacy Clause. This establishes that the federal constitution, and federal law generally, take precedence over state laws, and even state constitutions. The principle of States' Rights is sometimes interpreted as being established by the Tenth Amendment, which says that "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."he States respectively, or to the people.")
Union Européenne + (The European Union (EU) is a supranational … The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of 27 member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of 4,233,255.3 km2 (1,634,469.0 sq mi) and an estimated total population of about 447 million. The EU has often been described as a sui generis political entity (without precedent or comparison) combining the characteristics of both a federation and a confederation. Containing 5.8 per cent of the world population in 2020, the EU generated a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of around US$17.1 trillion in 2021, constituting approximately 18 per cent of global nominal GDP. Additionally, all EU states have a very high Human Development Index according to the United Nations Development Programme. Its cornerstone, the Customs Union, paved the way to establishing an internal single market based on standardised legal framework and legislation that applies in all member states in those matters, and only those matters, where the states have agreed to act as one. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market; enact legislation in justice and home affairs; and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development. Passport controls have been abolished for travel within the Schengen Area. The eurozone is a group composed of the 19 EU member states that have fully implemented the economic and monetary union and use the euro currency. Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the union has developed a role in external relations and defence. It maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7 and the G20. Due to its global influence, the European Union has been described by some scholars as an emerging superpower. The union was established along with its citizenship when the Maastricht Treaty came into force in 1993, and was subsequently incorporated as an international law juridical person upon entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009, but its beginnings may be traced to its earliest predecessors incorporated primarily by a group of founding states known as the Inner Six (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany) at the start of modern institutionalised European integration in 1948 and onwards, namely to the Western Union (WU, 1954 renamed Western European Union, WEU), the International Authority for the Ruhr (IAR), the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the European Economic Community (EEC, 1993 renamed European Community, EC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), established, respectively, by the 1948 Treaty of Brussels, the 1948 London Six-Power Conference, the 1951 Treaty of Paris, the 1957 Treaty of Rome and the 1957 Euratom Treaty. These increasingly amalgamated bodies later known collectively as the European Communities have grown since, along with their legal successor, the EU, both in size through accessions of further 21 states as well as in power through acquisitions of various policy areas to their remit by the virtue of the abovementioned treaties, as well as numerous other ones, such as the Modified Brussels Treaty, the Merger Treaty, the Single European Act, the Treaty of Amsterdam and the Treaty of Nice. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Although the United Kingdom became the only member state to leave the EU in 2020, several other countries are aspiring or negotiating to join it.es are aspiring or negotiating to join it.)
Tourisme + (Tourism is travel for pleasure or business … Tourism is travel for pleasure or business; also the theory and practice of touring, the business of attracting, accommodating, and entertaining tourists, and the business of operating tours. The World Tourism Organization defines tourism more generally, in terms which go "beyond the common perception of tourism as being limited to holiday activity only", as people "travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure and not less than 24 hours, business and other purposes". Tourism can be domestic (within the traveller's own country) or international, and international tourism has both incoming and outgoing implications on a country's balance of payments. Tourism numbers declined as a result of a strong economic slowdown (the late-2000s recession) between the second half of 2008 and the end of 2009, and in consequence of the outbreak of the 2009 H1N1 influenza virus, but slowly recovered until the COVID-19 pandemic put an abrupt end to the growth. The United Nations World Tourism Organization estimated that global international tourist arrivals might decrease by 58% to 78% in 2020, leading to a potential loss of US$0.9–1.2 trillion in international tourism receipts. Globally, international tourism receipts (the travel item in balance of payments) grew to US$1.03 trillion (€740 billion) in 2005, corresponding to an increase in real terms of 3.8% from 2010. International tourist arrivals surpassed the milestone of 1 billion tourists globally for the first time in 2012, emerging source markets such as China, Russia, and Brazil had significantly increased their spending over the previous decade. Global tourism accounts for c. 8% of global greenhouse-gas emissions. Emissions as well as other significant environmental and social impacts are not always beneficial to local communities and their economies. For this reason, many tourist development organizations have begun to focus on sustainable tourism to mitigate the negative effects caused by the growing impact of tourism. The United Nations World Tourism Organization emphasized these practices by promoting tourism as part of the Sustainable Development Goals, through programs like the International Year for Sustainable Tourism for Development in 2017, and programs like focusing on how SDG 8, SDG 12 and SDG 14 implicate tourism in creating a sustainable economy. Tourism has reached new dimensions with the emerging industry of space tourism as well as the current industry with cruise ships, there are many different ways of tourism. Another potential new tourism industry is virtual tourism.l new tourism industry is virtual tourism.)
Logiciel libre + (Un logiciel libre est un logiciel dont l'u … Un logiciel libre est un logiciel dont l'utilisation, l'étude, la modification et la duplication par autrui en vue de sa diffusion sont permises, techniquement et juridiquement, ceci afin de garantir certaines libertés induites, dont le contrôle du programme par l'utilisateur et la possibilité de partage entre individus. Ces droits peuvent être simplement disponibles — cas du domaine public — ou bien établis par une licence, dite « libre », basée sur le droit d'auteur. Les « licences copyleft » garantissent le maintien de ces droits aux utilisateurs même pour les travaux dérivés. Les logiciels libres constituent une alternative à ceux qui ne le sont pas, qualifiés de « propriétaires » ou de « privateurs ». Ces derniers sont alors considérés par une partie de la communauté du logiciel libre comme étant l'instrument d'un pouvoir injuste, en permettant au développeur de contrôler l'utilisateur. Le logiciel libre est souvent confondu à tort avec : * les gratuiciels (freewares) : un gratuiciel est un logiciel gratuit propriétaire, alors qu'un logiciel libre se définit par les libertés accordées à l'utilisateur. Si la nature du logiciel libre facilite et encourage son partage, ce qui tend à le rendre gratuit, elle ne s'oppose pas pour autant à sa rentabilité principalement via des services associés. Les rémunérations sont liées par exemple aux travaux de création, de développement, de mise à disposition et de soutien technique. D'un autre côté les logiciels gratuits ne sont pas nécessairement libres, car leur code source n'est pas systématiquement accessible et leur licence peut ne pas correspondre à la définition du logiciel libre. * l’open source : le logiciel libre, selon son initiateur, est un mouvement social qui repose sur les principes de Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité ; l’open source quant à lui, décrit pour la première fois dans La Cathédrale et le Bazar, s'attache aux avantages d'une méthode de développement au travers de la réutilisation du code source.ravers de la réutilisation du code source.)
Gestion de l'eau + (Water resources are natural resources of w … Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful for humans, for example as a source of drinking water supply or irrigation water. 97% of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air. Natural sources of fresh water include surface water, under river flow, groundwater and frozen water. Artificial sources of fresh water can include treated wastewater (wastewater reuse) and desalinated seawater. Human uses of water resources include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Water resources are under threat from water scarcity, water pollution, water conflict and climate change. Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of groundwater is steadily decreasing, with depletion occurring most prominently in Asia, South America and North America, although it is still unclear how much natural renewal balances this usage, and whether ecosystems are threatened. The framework for allocating water resources to water users (where such a framework exists) is known as water rights.ramework exists) is known as water rights.)

Surveillance + (Surveillance is the monitoring of behavior … Surveillance is the monitoring of behavior, many activities, or information for the purpose of information gathering, influencing, managing or directing. This can include observation from a distance by means of electronic equipment, such as closed-circuit television (CCTV), or interception of electronically transmitted information like Internet traffic. It can also include simple technical methods, such as human intelligence gathering and postal interception. Surveillance is used by citizens for protecting their neighborhoods. And by governments for intelligence gathering - including espionage, prevention of crime, the protection of a process, person, group or object, or the investigation of crime. It is also used by criminal organizations to plan and commit crimes, and by businesses to gather intelligence on criminals, their competitors, suppliers or customers. Religious organisations charged with detecting heresy and heterodoxy may also carry out surveillance.Auditors carry out a form of surveillance. A byproduct of surveillance is that it can unjustifiably violate people's privacy and is often criticized by civil liberties activists. Liberal democracies may have laws that seek to restrict governmental and private use of surveillance, whereas authoritarian governments seldom have any domestic restrictions. Espionage is by definition covert and typically illegal according to the rules of the observed party, whereas most types of surveillance are overt and are considered legitimate. International espionage seems to be common among all types of countries.to be common among all types of countries.)

Licences Creative Commons + (A Creative Commons (CC) license is one of … A Creative Commons (CC) license is one of several public copyright licenses that enable the free distribution of an otherwise copyrighted "work". A CC license is used when an author wants to give other people the right to share, use, and build upon a work that the author has created. CC provides an author flexibility (for example, they might choose to allow only non-commercial uses of a given work) and protects the people who use or redistribute an author's work from concerns of copyright infringement as long as they abide by the conditions that are specified in the license by which the author distributes the work. There are several types of Creative Commons licenses. Each license differs by several combinations that condition the terms of distribution. They were initially released on December 16, 2002, by Creative Commons, a U.S. non-profit corporation founded in 2001. There have also been five versions of the suite of licenses, numbered 1.0 through 4.0. Released in November 2013, the 4.0 license suite is the most current. While the Creative Commons license was originally grounded in the American legal system, there are now several Creative Commons jurisdiction ports which accommodate international laws. In October 2014, the Open Knowledge Foundation approved the Creative Commons CC BY, CC BY-SA and CC0 licenses as conformant with the "Open Definition" for content and data.he "Open Definition" for content and data.)
Business Improvement District + (A business improvement district (BID) is a … A business improvement district (BID) is a defined area within which businesses are required to pay an additional tax (or levy) in order to fund projects within the district's boundaries. The BID is often funded primarily through the levy but can also draw on other public and private funding streams. BIDs may go by other names, such as business improvement area (BIA), business revitalization zone (BRZ), community improvement district (CID), special services area (SSA), or special improvement district (SID). These districts typically fund services which are perceived by some businesses as being inadequately performed by government with its existing tax revenues, such as cleaning streets, providing security, making capital improvements, construction of pedestrian and streetscape enhancements, and marketing the area. The services provided by BIDs are supplemental to those already provided by the municipality. The revenue derives from a tax assessment on commercial property owners, and in some cases, residential property owners.n some cases, residential property owners.)
Ville + (A city is a large human settlement. It can … A city is a large human settlement. It can be defined as a permanent and densely settled place with administratively defined boundaries whose members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks. Cities generally have extensive systems for housing, transportation, sanitation, utilities, land use, production of goods, and communication. Their density facilitates interaction between people, government organisations and businesses, sometimes benefiting different parties in the process, such as improving efficiency of goods and service distribution. Historically, city-dwellers have been a small proportion of humanity overall, but following two centuries of unprecedented and rapid urbanization, more than half of the world population now lives in cities, which has had profound consequences for global sustainability. Present-day cities usually form the core of larger metropolitan areas and urban areas—creating numerous commuters traveling towards city centres for employment, entertainment, and education. However, in a world of intensifying globalization, all cities are to varying degrees also connected globally beyond these regions. This increased influence means that cities also have significant influences on global issues, such as sustainable development, global warming, and global health. Because of these major influences on global issues, the international community has prioritized investment in sustainable cities through Sustainable Development Goal 11. Due to the efficiency of transportation and the smaller land consumption, dense cities hold the potential to have a smaller ecological footprint per inhabitant than more sparsely populated areas. Therefore, compact cities are often referred to as a crucial element of fighting climate change. However, this concentration can also have significant negative consequences, such as forming urban heat islands, concentrating pollution, and stressing water supplies and other resources. Other important traits of cities besides population include the capital status and relative continued occupation of the city. For example, country capitals such as Beijing, London, Mexico City, Moscow, Nairobi, New Delhi, Paris, Rome, Athens, Seoul, Singapore, Tokyo, Manila, and Washington, D.C. reflect the identity and apex of their respective nations. Some historic capitals, such as Kyoto and Xi'an, maintain their reflection of cultural identity even without modern capital status. Religious holy sites offer another example of capital status within a religion, Jerusalem, Mecca, Varanasi, Ayodhya, Haridwar and Prayagraj each hold significance.dwar and Prayagraj each hold significance.)
Collectif + (A collective is a group of entities that s … A collective is a group of entities that share or are motivated by at least one common issue or interest, or work together to achieve a common objective. Collectives can differ from cooperatives in that they are not necessarily focused upon an economic benefit or saving, but can be that as well. The term "collective" is sometimes used to describe a species as a whole—for example, the human collective. For political purposes, a collective is defined by decentralized, or "majority-rules" decision making styles.r "majority-rules" decision making styles.)
Communauté + (A community is a social unit (a group of l … A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as place, norms, religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a country, village, town, or neighbourhood) or in virtual space through communication platforms. Durable good relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties also define a sense of community, important to their identity, practice, and roles in social institutions such as family, home, work, government, society, or humanity at large. Although communities are usually small relative to personal social ties, "community" may also refer to large group affiliations such as national communities, international communities, and virtual communities. The English-language word "community" derives from the Old French comuneté (Modern French: communauté), which comes from the Latin communitas "community", "public spirit" (from Latin communis, "common"). Human communities may have intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, and risks in common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness.icipants and their degree of cohesiveness.)
Fiducie foncière communautaire + (A community land trust (CLT) is a nonprofi … A community land trust (CLT) is a nonprofit corporation that holds land on behalf of a place-based community, while serving as the long-term steward for affordable housing, community gardens, civic buildings, commercial spaces and other community assets on behalf of a community. CLTs balance the needs of individuals who want security of tenure in occupying and using land and housing, with the needs of the surrounding community, striving to secure a variety of social purposes such as maintaining the affordability of local housing, preventing the displacement of vulnerable residents, and promoting economic and racial inclusion. Across the world, there is enormous diversity among CLTs in the ways that real property is owned, used, and operated and the ways that the CLT itself is guided and governed by people living on and around a CLT’s land. people living on and around a CLT’s land.)
Community Land Trust + (A community land trust (CLT) is a nonprofi … A community land trust (CLT) is a nonprofit corporation that holds land on behalf of a place-based community, while serving as the long-term steward for affordable housing, community gardens, civic buildings, commercial spaces and other community assets on behalf of a community. CLTs balance the needs of individuals who want security of tenure in occupying and using land and housing, with the needs of the surrounding community, striving to secure a variety of social purposes such as maintaining the affordability of local housing, preventing the displacement of vulnerable residents, and promoting economic and racial inclusion. Across the world, there is enormous diversity among CLTs in the ways that real property is owned, used, and operated and the ways that the CLT itself is guided and governed by people living on and around a CLT’s land. people living on and around a CLT’s land.)
Monnaie complémentaire + (A complementary currency is a currency or … A complementary currency is a currency or medium of exchange that is not necessarily a national currency, but that is thought of as supplementing or complementing national currencies. Complementary currencies are usually not legal tender and their use is based on agreement between the parties exchanging the currency. According to Jérôme Blanc of Laboratoire d'Économie de la Firme et des Institutions, complementary currencies aim to protect, stimulate or orientate the economy. They may also be used to advance particular social, environmental, or political goals. When speaking about complementary currencies, a number of overlapping and often interchangeable terms are in use: local or community currencies are complementary currencies used within a locality or other form of community (such as business-based or online communities); regional currencies are similar to local currencies, but are used within a larger geographical region; and sectoral currencies are complementary currencies used within a single economic sector, such as education or health care. Many private currencies are complementary currencies issued by private businesses or organizations. Other terms include alternative currency, auxiliary currency, and microcurrency. Mutual credit is a form of alternative currency, and thus any form of lending that does not go through the banking system can be considered a form of alternative currency. Barters are another type of alternative currency. These are actually exchange systems, which trade only items, without the use of any currency whatsoever. Finally, LETS is a special form of barter that trades points for items. One point stands for one worker-hour of work, and is thus a Time-based currency.f work, and is thus a Time-based currency.)
Constitution + (A constitution is the aggregate of fundame … A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed. When these principles are written down into a single document or set of legal documents, those documents may be said to embody a written constitution; if they are encompassed in a single comprehensive document, it is said to embody a codified constitution. The Constitution of the United Kingdom is a notable example of an uncodified constitution; it is instead written in numerous fundamental Acts of a legislature, court cases or treaties. Constitutions concern different levels of organizations, from sovereign countries to companies and unincorporated associations. A treaty which establishes an international organization is also its constitution, in that it would define how that organization is constituted. Within states, a constitution defines the principles upon which the state is based, the procedure in which laws are made and by whom. Some constitutions, especially codified constitutions, also act as limiters of state power, by establishing lines which a state's rulers cannot cross, such as fundamental rights. The Constitution of India is the longest written constitution of any country in the world, with 146,385 words in its English-language version, while the Constitution of Monaco is the shortest written constitution with 3,814 words. The Constitution of San Marino might be the world's oldest active written constitution, since some of its core documents have been in operation since 1600, while the Constitution of the United States is the oldest active codified constitution. The historical life expectancy of a constitution since 1789 is approximately 19 years.tion since 1789 is approximately 19 years.)
Coop + (A cooperative (also known as co-operative, … A cooperative (also known as co-operative, co-op, or coop) is "an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically-controlled enterprise". Cooperatives are democratically controlled by their members, with each member having one vote in electing the board of directors.Cooperatives may include: * businesses owned and managed by the people who consume their goods and/or services (a consumer cooperative) * businesses where producers pool their output for their common benefit (a producer cooperative) * organizations managed by the people who work there (a worker cooperative) * businesses where members pool their purchasing power (a purchasing cooperative) * multi-stakeholder or hybrid cooperatives that share ownership between different stakeholder groups. For example, care cooperatives where ownership is shared between both care-givers and receivers. Stakeholders might also include non-profits or investors. * second- and third-tier cooperatives whose members are other cooperatives * platform cooperatives that use a cooperatively owned and governed website, mobile app or a protocol to facilitate the sale of goods and services. Research published by the Worldwatch Institute found that in 2012 approximately one billion people in 96 countries had become members of at least one cooperative. The turnover of the largest three hundred cooperatives in the world reached $2.2 trillion. Cooperative businesses are typically more productive and economically resilient than many other forms of enterprise, with twice the number of co-operatives (80%) surviving their first five years compared with other business ownership models (41%) according to data from United Kingdom. The largest worker owned cooperative in the world, the Mondragon Corporation (founded by Catholic priest José María Arizmendiarrieta), has been in continuous operation since 1956. Cooperatives frequently have social goals, which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6.9% of their pre-tax profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2.4% for other rival supermarkets. Since 2002, cooperatives have been distinguishable on the Internet through the use of a .coop domain. In 2014, the International Co-operative Alliance (ICA) introduced the Cooperative Marque, meaning ICA cooperatives and WOCCU credit unions can also be identified through a coop ethical consumerism label. through a coop ethical consumerism label.)
Co-operative + (A cooperative (also known as co-operative, … A cooperative (also known as co-operative, co-op, or coop) is "an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically-controlled enterprise". Cooperatives are democratically controlled by their members, with each member having one vote in electing the board of directors.Cooperatives may include: * businesses owned and managed by the people who consume their goods and/or services (a consumer cooperative) * businesses where producers pool their output for their common benefit (a producer cooperative) * organizations managed by the people who work there (a worker cooperative) * businesses where members pool their purchasing power (a purchasing cooperative) * multi-stakeholder or hybrid cooperatives that share ownership between different stakeholder groups. For example, care cooperatives where ownership is shared between both care-givers and receivers. Stakeholders might also include non-profits or investors. * second- and third-tier cooperatives whose members are other cooperatives * platform cooperatives that use a cooperatively owned and governed website, mobile app or a protocol to facilitate the sale of goods and services. Research published by the Worldwatch Institute found that in 2012 approximately one billion people in 96 countries had become members of at least one cooperative. The turnover of the largest three hundred cooperatives in the world reached $2.2 trillion. Cooperative businesses are typically more productive and economically resilient than many other forms of enterprise, with twice the number of co-operatives (80%) surviving their first five years compared with other business ownership models (41%) according to data from United Kingdom. The largest worker owned cooperative in the world, the Mondragon Corporation (founded by Catholic priest José María Arizmendiarrieta), has been in continuous operation since 1956. Cooperatives frequently have social goals, which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6.9% of their pre-tax profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2.4% for other rival supermarkets. Since 2002, cooperatives have been distinguishable on the Internet through the use of a .coop domain. In 2014, the International Co-operative Alliance (ICA) introduced the Cooperative Marque, meaning ICA cooperatives and WOCCU credit unions can also be identified through a coop ethical consumerism label. through a coop ethical consumerism label.)
Coopérative + (A cooperative (also known as co-operative, … A cooperative (also known as co-operative, co-op, or coop) is "an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically-controlled enterprise". Cooperatives are democratically controlled by their members, with each member having one vote in electing the board of directors.Cooperatives may include: * businesses owned and managed by the people who consume their goods and/or services (a consumer cooperative) * businesses where producers pool their output for their common benefit (a producer cooperative) * organizations managed by the people who work there (a worker cooperative) * businesses where members pool their purchasing power (a purchasing cooperative) * multi-stakeholder or hybrid cooperatives that share ownership between different stakeholder groups. For example, care cooperatives where ownership is shared between both care-givers and receivers. Stakeholders might also include non-profits or investors. * second- and third-tier cooperatives whose members are other cooperatives * platform cooperatives that use a cooperatively owned and governed website, mobile app or a protocol to facilitate the sale of goods and services. Research published by the Worldwatch Institute found that in 2012 approximately one billion people in 96 countries had become members of at least one cooperative. The turnover of the largest three hundred cooperatives in the world reached $2.2 trillion. Cooperative businesses are typically more productive and economically resilient than many other forms of enterprise, with twice the number of co-operatives (80%) surviving their first five years compared with other business ownership models (41%) according to data from United Kingdom. The largest worker owned cooperative in the world, the Mondragon Corporation (founded by Catholic priest José María Arizmendiarrieta), has been in continuous operation since 1956. Cooperatives frequently have social goals, which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6.9% of their pre-tax profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2.4% for other rival supermarkets. Since 2002, cooperatives have been distinguishable on the Internet through the use of a .coop domain. In 2014, the International Co-operative Alliance (ICA) introduced the Cooperative Marque, meaning ICA cooperatives and WOCCU credit unions can also be identified through a coop ethical consumerism label. through a coop ethical consumerism label.)
Économies du don + (A gift economy or gift culture is a system … A gift economy or gift culture is a system of exchange where valuables are not sold, but rather given without an explicit agreement for immediate or future rewards. Social norms and customs govern giving a gift in a gift culture; although there is some expectation of reciprocity, gifts are not given in an explicit exchange of goods or services for money, or some other commodity or service. This contrasts with a barter economy or a market economy, where goods and services are primarily explicitly exchanged for value received. The nature of gift economies is the subject of a foundational debate in anthropology. Anthropological research into gift economies began with Bronisław Malinowski's description of the Kula ring in the Trobriand Islands during World War I. The Kula trade appeared to be gift-like since Trobrianders would travel great distances over dangerous seas to give what were considered valuable objects without any guarantee of a return. Malinowski's debate with the French anthropologist Marcel Mauss quickly established the complexity of "gift exchange" and introduced a series of technical terms such as reciprocity, inalienable possessions, and presentation to distinguish between the different forms of exchange. According to anthropologists Maurice Bloch and Jonathan Parry, it is the unsettled relationship between market and non-market exchange that attracts the most attention. Some authors argue that gift economies build community, while markets harm community relationships. Gift exchange is distinguished from other forms of exchange by a number of principles, such as the form of property rights governing the articles exchanged; whether gifting forms a distinct "sphere of exchange" that can be characterized as an "economic system"; and the character of the social relationship that the gift exchange establishes. Gift ideology in highly commercialized societies differs from the "prestations" typical of non-market societies. Gift economies also differ from related phenomena, such as common property regimes and the exchange of non-commodified labour.nd the exchange of non-commodified labour.)
Habitat partagé / habitat communautaire + (A housing cooperative, or housing co-op, i … A housing cooperative, or housing co-op, is a legal entity, usually a cooperative or a corporation, which owns real estate, consisting of one or more residential buildings; it is one type of housing tenure. Housing cooperatives are a distinctive form of home ownership that have many characteristics that differ from other residential arrangements such as single family home ownership, condominiums and renting. The corporation is membership based, with membership granted by way of a share purchase in the cooperative. Each shareholder in the legal entity is granted the right to occupy one housing unit. A primary advantage of the housing cooperative is the pooling of the members' resources so that their buying power is leveraged; thus lowering the cost per member in all the services and products associated with home ownership. Another key element in some forms of housing cooperatives is that the members, through their elected representatives, screen and select who may live in the cooperative, unlike any other form of home ownership. Housing cooperatives fall into two general tenure categories: non-ownership (referred to as non-equity or continuing) and ownership (referred to as equity or strata). In non-equity cooperatives, occupancy rights are sometimes granted subject to an occupancy agreement, which is similar to a lease. In equity cooperatives, occupancy rights are sometimes granted by way of the purchase agreements and legal instruments registered on the title. The corporation's articles of incorporation and bylaws as well as occupancy agreement specifies the cooperative's rules. The word cooperative is also used to describe a non-share capital co-op model in which fee-paying members obtain the right to occupy a bedroom and share the communal resources of a house owned by a cooperative organization. Such is the case with student cooperatives in some college and university communities across the United States.sity communities across the United States.)
Brevets + (A patent is a type of intellectual propert … A patent is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the legal right to exclude others from making, using, or selling an invention for a limited period of time in exchange for publishing an enabling disclosure of the invention. In most countries, patent rights fall under private law and the patent holder must sue someone infringing the patent in order to enforce their rights. In some industries patents are an essential form of competitive advantage; in others they are irrelevant. The procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the scope of protection that is being sought. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right. Under the World Trade Organization's (WTO) TRIPS Agreement, patents should be available in WTO member states for any invention, in all fields of technology, provided they are new, involve an inventive step, and are capable of industrial application. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, also among WTO member states. TRIPS also provides that the term of protection available should be a minimum of twenty years.lable should be a minimum of twenty years.)
foaf:knows + (A person known by this person (indicating some level of reciprocated interaction between the parties).)
Assemblée populaire + (A popular assembly (or people's assembly) … A popular assembly (or people's assembly) is a gathering called to address issues of importance to participants. Assemblies tend to be freely open to participation and operate by direct democracy. Some assemblies are of people from a location, some from a given workplace, industry or educational establishment others are called to address a specific issue. The term is often used to describe gatherings that address, what participants feel are, the effects of a democratic deficit in representative democratic systems. Sometimes assemblies are created to form an alternative power structure, other times they work with other forms of government. they work with other forms of government.)
Services publics + (A public service is any service intended t … A public service is any service intended to address specific needs pertaining to the aggregate members of a community. Public services are available to people within a government jurisdiction as provided directly through public sector agencies or via public financing to private businesses or voluntary organizations (or even as provided by family households, though terminology may differ depending on context). Other public services are undertaken on behalf of a government's residents or in the interest of its citizens. The term is associated with a social consensus (usually expressed through democratic elections) that certain services should be available to all, regardless of income, physical ability or mental acuity. Examples of such services include the fire brigade, police, air force, and paramedics (see also public service broadcasting). Even where public services are neither publicly provided nor publicly financed, they are usually subject to regulation going beyond that applying to most economic sectors for social and political reasons. Public policy, when made in the public's interest and with its motivations, is a type of public service. motivations, is a type of public service.)
Camp + (A refugee camp is a temporary settlement b … A refugee camp is a temporary settlement built to receive refugees and people in refugee-like situations. Refugee camps usually accommodate displaced people who have fled their home country, but camps are also made for internally displaced people. Usually, refugees seek asylum after they have escaped war in their home countries, but some camps also house environmental and economic migrants. Camps with over a hundred thousand people are common, but as of 2012, the average-sized camp housed around 11,400. They are usually built and run by a government, the United Nations, international organizations (such as the International Committee of the Red Cross), or non-governmental organization. Unofficial refugee camps, such as Idomeni in Greece or the Calais jungle in France, are where refugees are largely left without support of governments or international organizations. Refugee camps generally develop in an impromptu fashion with the aim of meeting basic human needs for only a short time. Facilities that make a camp look or feel more permanent are often prohibited by host country governments. If the return of refugees is prevented (often by civil war), a humanitarian crisis can result or continue. According to UNHCR, most refugees worldwide do not live in refugee camps. At the end of 2015, some 67% of refugees around the world lived in individual, private accommodations. This can be partly explained by the high number of Syrian refugees renting apartments in urban agglomerations across the Middle East. Worldwide, slightly over a quarter (25.4%) of refugees were reported to be living in managed camps. At the end of 2015, about 56% of the total refugee population in rural locations resided in a managed camp, compared to the 2% who resided in individual accommodation. In urban locations, the overwhelming majority (99%) of refugees lived in individual accommodations, compared with less than 1% who lived in a managed camp. A small percentage of refugees also live in collective centers, transit camps, and self-settled camps. Despite 74% of refugees being in urban areas, the service delivery model of international humanitarian aid agencies remains focused on the establishment and operation of refugee camps.ablishment and operation of refugee camps.)
Rue + (A street is a public thoroughfare in a bui … A street is a public thoroughfare in a built environment. It is a public parcel of land adjoining buildings in an urban context, on which people may freely assemble, interact, and move about. A street can be as simple as a level patch of dirt, but is more often paved with a hard, durable surface such as tarmac, concrete, cobblestone or brick. Portions may also be smoothed with asphalt, embedded with rails, or otherwise prepared to accommodate non-pedestrian traffic. Originally, the word street simply meant a paved road (Latin: via strata). The word street is still sometimes used informally as a synonym for road, for example in connection with the ancient Watling Street, but city residents and urban planners draw a crucial modern distinction: a road's main function is transportation, while streets facilitate public interaction. Examples of streets include pedestrian streets, alleys, and city-centre streets too crowded for road vehicles to pass. Conversely, highways and motorways are types of roads, but few would refer to them as streets.s, but few would refer to them as streets.)
Économie de subsistance + (A subsistence economy is an economy direct … A subsistence economy is an economy directed to basic subsistence (the provision of food, clothing, shelter) rather than to the market. Henceforth, "subsistence" is understood as supporting oneself at a minimum level. Often, the subsistence economy is moneyless and relies on natural resources to provide for basic needs through hunting, gathering, and agriculture. In a subsistence economy, economic surplus is minimal and only used to trade for basic goods, and there is no industrialization.In hunting and gathering societies, resources are often if not typically underused. In human history, before the first cities, all humans lived in a subsistence economy. As urbanization, civilization, and division of labor spread, various societies moved to other economic systems at various times. Some remain relatively unchanged, ranging from uncontacted peoples, to marginalized areas of developing countries, to some cultures that choose to retain a traditional economy. Capital can be generally defined as assets invested with the expectation that their value will increase, usually because there is the expectation of profit, rent, interest, royalties, capital gain or some other kind of return. However, this type of economy cannot usually become wealthy by virtue of the system, and instead requires further investments to stimulate economic growth. In other words, a subsistence economy only possesses enough goods to be used by a particular nation to maintain its existence and provides little to no surplus for other investments. It is common for a surplus capital to be invested in social capital such as feasting.vested in social capital such as feasting.)
Altermondialisme + (Alter-globalization (also known as alterna … Alter-globalization (also known as alternative globalization or alter-mundialization—from the French alter-mondialisation—and overlapping with the global justice movement) is a social movement whose proponents support global cooperation and interaction, but oppose what they describe as the negative effects of economic globalization, considering it to often work to the detriment of, or to not adequately promote, human values such as environmental and climate protection, economic justice, labor protection, protection of indigenous cultures, peace and civil liberties. The name may have been derived from a popular slogan of the movement, namely "another world is possible", which came out of the World Social Forum. The alter-globalization movement is a cooperative movement designed to "protest the direction and perceived negative economic, political, social, cultural and ecological consequences of neoliberal globalization". Many alter-globalists seek to avoid the "disestablishment of local economies and disastrous humanitarian consequences". Most members of this movement shun the label "anti-globalization" as pejorative and incorrect since they actively support human activity on a global scale and do not oppose economic globalization per se. Instead they see their movement as an alternative to what they term neo-liberal globalization in which international institutions (the World Trade Organization, World Bank, International Monetary Fund and the like) and major corporations devote themselves to enriching the developed world while giving little or no attention to what critics say are the detrimental effects of their actions on the people and environments of Less Developed Countries, countries whose governments are often too weak or too corrupt to resist or regulate them. This is not to be confused with proletarian internationalism as put forth by communists in that alter-globalists do not necessarily oppose the free market, but a subset of free-market practices characterized by certain business attitudes and political policies that they say often lead to violations of human rights. often lead to violations of human rights.)
Allotment Garden + (An allotment (British English), or in Nort … An allotment (British English), or in North America, a community garden, is a plot of land made available for individual, non-commercial gardening or growing food plants, so forming a kitchen garden away from the residence of the user. Such plots are formed by subdividing a piece of land into a few or up to several hundred parcels that are assigned to individuals or families. Such parcels are cultivated individually, contrary to other community garden types where the entire area is tended collectively by a group of people. In countries that do not use the term "allotment (garden)", a "community garden" may refer to individual small garden plots as well as to a single, large piece of land gardened collectively by a group of people. The term "victory garden" is also still sometimes used, especially when a community garden dates back to the First or Second World War. The individual size of a parcel typically suits the needs of a family, and often the plots include a shed for tools and shelter, and sometimes a hut for seasonal or weekend accommodation. The individual gardeners are usually organised in an allotment association, which leases or is granted the land from an owner who may be a public, private or ecclesiastical entity, and who usually stipulates that it be only used for gardening (i.e., growing vegetables, fruits and flowers), but not for permanent residential purposes (this is usually also required by zoning laws). The gardeners have to pay a small membership fee to the association, and have to abide by the corresponding constitution and by-laws. However, the membership entitles them to certain democratic rights.ntitles them to certain democratic rights.)
Écoquartier + (An ecodistrict or eco-district is a neolog … An ecodistrict or eco-district is a neologism associating the terms "district" and "eco" as an abbreviation of ecological.It designates an urban planning aiming to integrate objectives of sustainable development and social equity and reduce the ecological footprint of a neighborhood, urban area, or region. This notion insists on the consideration of the whole environmental issues by way of a collaborative process. In order to design ecodistricts, one needs to completely redesign their energy system plans. The usage of photovoltaic panels and electric vehicles is common.ic panels and electric vehicles is common.)
Anthropomorphisme + (Anthropomorphism is the attribution of hum … Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology. Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics to abstract concepts such as nations, emotions, and natural forces, such as seasons and weather. Both have ancient roots as storytelling and artistic devices, and most cultures have traditional fables with anthropomorphized animals as characters. People have also routinely attributed human emotions and behavioral traits to wild as well as domesticated animals.s to wild as well as domesticated animals.)