Attribut:Résumé DBP
De Remix Biens Communs
Cette propriété est de type Monolingual text.
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L'économie de l'abondance est un modèle économique dans lequel tout ou partie des biens, services et informations sont gratuits ou pratiquement gratuits. Une première forme d'économie d'abondance apparaît avec l'économie distributive de Jacques Duboin vers le milieu du XXe siècle, dont l'abondance est le verso « logique ». Une autre forme, contemporaine, est liée à l'abondance en ressources primaires (matière et énergie), en conjonction avec des systèmes automatisés capables de transformer ces ressources en produits et services finis, permettant une production de produits physiques sans nécessiter de labeur humain. Ce modèle a d'abord été évoqué dans la science fiction, principalement anglo-saxonne, avec notamment Pandora's Millions de George O. Smith, ou L'Âge de diamant, de Neal Stephenson. Il s'agit aujourd'hui d'une notion très répandue, spécialement dans les univers post-humains ou post-singularistes. Dans le monde réel, de nombreuses personnes considèrent que le mouvement du logiciel libre constitue d'ores et déjà une économie de l'abondance. Richard Stallman, fondateur de la fondation GNU, et une des figures les plus influentes du mouvement du logiciel libre parle de ce dernier comme d'une première étape vers l'économie de l'abondance dans le manifeste GNU (appelée dans cette traduction « après-pénurie », traduction littérale du terme anglais « post-scarcity ») . Dans la même lignée, un ensemble de projets de matériel libre (open hardware) tente de reproduire ce succès dans le monde matériel, en s'appuyant sur des techniques d'impression 3D ou sur des fablabs. Ce domaine est cependant plus jeune et moins mature que celui du logiciel libre, ce qui n'a pas empêché le gouvernement américain de s'y intéresser et de chercher à accompagner le mieux possible le mouvement. (fr) +, Post-scarcity is a theoretical economic situation in which most goods can be produced in great abundance with minimal human labor needed, so that they become available to all very cheaply or even freely. Post-scarcity does not mean that scarcity has been eliminated for all goods and services, but that all people can easily have their basic survival needs met along with some significant proportion of their desires for goods and services. Writers on the topic often emphasize that some commodities will remain scarce in a post-scarcity society. (en) +
L'abusus est l'un des attributs du droit de propriété, le droit de disposer de son bien, qu'il s'agisse de la disposition juridique de son bien par l'aliénation (vente ou don) ou matérielle par la destruction. L'abusus peut être détenu par le propriétaire, le possesseur, mais en aucun cas par l'usufruitier. Il est un des démembrements du droit de propriété avec l’usus, le droit d'user d'une chose sans en percevoir les fruits (le droit d'habiter dans une maison dont on a l’usus) et le fructus, le droit d'en percevoir les fruits et revenus (le droit de louer et de percevoir les loyers d'une maison dont on a le fructus). Usus et fructus étant couramment réunis dans l'usufruit. L'abusus est un droit réel en ce sens qu'il s'exerce sur une chose. (fr) +
Water grabbing involves the distribution of water resources in a way that leaves one or more parties feeling the distribution is less equitable. It also can have damaging environmental effects as watersheds are made unsustainable by overuse of limited water. (en) +
L’accaparement des terres (en anglais, land grabbing) désigne de manière péjorative l'acquisition légale, et parfois controversée, de grandes étendues de terrains. Il s'agit souvent de terres agricoles dans des pays en développement, par des entreprises transnationales et gouvernementales. (fr) +, Land grabbing is the contentious issue of large-scale land acquisitions: the buying or leasing of large pieces of land by domestic and transnational companies, governments, and individuals. While used broadly throughout history, land grabbing as used in the 21st century primarily refers to large-scale land acquisitions following the 2007–08 world food price crisis. Obtaining water resources is usually critical to the land acquisitions, so it has also led to an associated trend of water grabbing. By prompting food security fears within the developed world and newfound economic opportunities for agricultural investors, the food price crisis caused a dramatic spike in large-scale agricultural investments, primarily foreign, in the Global South for the purpose of industrial food and biofuels production. Although hailed by investors, economists and some developing countries as a new pathway towards agricultural development, investment in land in the 21st century has been criticized by some non-governmental organizations and commentators as having a negative impact on local communities. International law is implicated when attempting to regulate these transactions. (en) +, El Acaparamiento de Tierras es la expresión en español para referirse al término en inglés Land Grabbing. El acaparamiento de tierras se refiere al nuevo ciclo mundial de apropiación de tierras que se inició en el año 2008 a partir de la crisis alimentaria que se desató durante ese año. (es) +
The Access to Knowledge (A2K) movement is a loose collection of civil society groups, governments, and individuals converging on the idea that access to knowledge should be linked to fundamental principles of justice, freedom, and economic development. (en) +
Le libre accès (anglais : open access) est la mise à disposition en ligne de contenus numériques, qui peuvent eux-mêmes être soit libres (Creative Commons, etc.), soit sous un des régimes de propriété intellectuelle. Le libre accès est principalement utilisé pour les articles de revues de recherche universitaires sélectionnés par des pairs. On devrait, en réalité, distinguer le libre accès et l'accès ouvert (anglais : gratis open access), afin de distinguer plus nettement ce qui est, respectivement, en accès gratuit et libre, parce que soumis à une licence libre, et ce qui est « simplement » en accès gratuit pour l'internaute. Le libre accès peut, en théorie, inclure l'accès aux données afin de permettre l'exploration de données, mais ce n'est en général pas le cas. Dans Qu'est-ce que l'accès ouvert?, Peter Suber écrit: « L'idée de base de l'accès ouvert est simple: faire en sorte que la littérature scientifique soit disponible en ligne sans barrières liées au prix et sans la plupart des contraintes dues à des autorisations. » Il existe deux types de libre accès (à ne pas confondre avec l'accès libre) avec de nombreuses variations.
* Dans la publication en libre accès, également connue comme la voie « dorée » du libre accès (anglais : gold open access), les revues rendent leurs articles directement et immédiatement accessibles au public. Ces publications s'appellent des « revues en accès ouvert » (anglais : « open access journals »). En 2014, 17 % des articles scientifiques (y compris de sciences humaines) publiés dans le monde l'étaient selon ce modèle (la proportion n'était que de 14 % en 2012). Un exemple de publication en libre accès est la revue Public Library of Science, qui utilise le modèle de financement dit « auteur-payeur ».
* En ce qui concerne le libre accès par auto-archivage, aussi appelée la voie « verte » du libre accès, les auteurs déposent des copies de leurs articles sur une archive ouverte. Un des principaux partisans de la voie « verte » est Stevan Harnad, et cela depuis 1994. Le libre accès est actuellement à l'origine de beaucoup de discussions entre universitaires, bibliothécaires, administrateurs d'universités, éditeurs scientifiques et politiciens. Il existe un désaccord substantiel sur le concept de libre accès, avec un grand débat autour de sa rémunération économique.[réf. nécessaire] En 2019, selon une étude, 31 % des 71 millions d’articles publiés entre 1950 et octobre 2019 sont en libre accès. Les auteurs prédisent que 44 % de tous les articles seront en libre accès en 2025. (fr) , Open access (OA) is a set of principles and a range of practices through which research outputs are distributed online, free of access charges or other barriers. With open access strictly defined (according to the 2001 definition), or libre open access, barriers to copying or reuse are also reduced or removed by applying an open license for copyright. The main focus of the open access movement is "peer reviewed research literature". Historically, this has centered mainly on print-based academic journals. Whereas non-open access journals cover publishing costs through access tolls such as subscriptions, site licenses or pay-per-view charges, open-access journals are characterised by funding models which do not require the reader to pay to read the journal's contents, relying instead on author fees or on public funding, subsidies and sponsorships. Open access can be applied to all forms of published research output, including peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed academic journal articles, conference papers, theses, book chapters, monographs, research reports and images. Since the revenue of most open access journals is earned from publication fees charged to the authors, OA publishers are motivated to increase their profits by accepting low-quality papers and by not performing thorough peer review. On the other hand, the prices for OA publications in the most prestigious journals have exceeded 5,000 US$, making such publishing model unaffordable to a large number of researchers. This increase in publishing cost has been called the "Open-Access Sequel to [the] Serials Crisis". (en) +, El acceso abierto (en inglés, Open access (OA)) es el acceso inmediato, sin requerimientos de registro, suscripción o pago -es decir sin restricciones- a material digital educativo, académico, científico o de cualquier otro tipo, principalmente artículos de investigación científica de revistas especializadas y arbitradas mediante el sistema de revisión por pares o peer review. (es) +
Collective action refers to action taken together by a group of people whose goal is to enhance their condition and achieve a common objective. It is a term that has formulations and theories in many areas of the social sciences including psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science and economics. (en) +
L'action publique désigne l'action de l'administration publique. C'est un concept de sociologie politique qui désigne à la fois l'activité de gouvernement, le travail gouvernemental et l'action de gouverner. En sociologie, la notion d'action publique est utilisée à la place de la notion de politique publique pour souligner la complexité de l'action de l'État et plus généralement de l'administration publique. A la différence de la notion de politique publique, la notion d'action publique est employée pour mettre en relief la question de la mise en œuvre des politiques publiques. L'objectif de cette approche, comme dans les science studies, est d'étudier ce que les acteurs font et non pas ce qu'ils disent qu'ils font. Le concept est aussi utilisé dans l'administration. Par exemple, en 2012, le gouvernement de Jean-Marc Ayrault a créé le Secrétariat général pour la modernisation de l'action publique (SGMAP) et en 2017, le gouvernement d'Édouard Philippe a lancé le programme . (fr) +
L’agriculture (du latin agricultura, composé à partir de ager, « champ », et de cultura, « culture ») est un processus par lequel les êtres humains aménagent leurs écosystèmes et contrôlent le cycle biologique d'espèces domestiquées, dans le but de produire des aliments et d'autres ressources utiles à leurs sociétés. Elle désigne l’ensemble des savoir-faire et activités ayant pour objet la culture des sols, et, plus généralement, l’ensemble des travaux sur le milieu naturel (pas seulement terrestre) permettant de cultiver et prélever des êtres vivants (végétaux, animaux, voire champignons ou microbes) utiles à l’être humain. La délimitation précise de ce qui entre ou non dans le champ de l’agriculture conduit à de nombreuses conventions qui ne font pas toutes l’objet d’un consensus. Certaines productions peuvent être considérées comme ne faisant pas partie de l'agriculture : la mise en valeur de la forêt (sylviculture), l’élevage d’animal aquatique (aquaculture), l’élevage hors-sol de certains animaux (volaille et porc principalement), la culture sur substrat artificiel (cultures hydroponiques)… Mis à part ces cas particuliers, on distingue principalement la culture pour l'activité concernant le végétal et l'élevage pour l'activité concernant l'animal. L'agronomie regroupe, depuis le XIXe siècle, l’ensemble de la connaissance biologique, technique, culturelle, économique et sociale relative à l'agriculture. En économie, l’économie agricole est définie comme le secteur d'activité dont la fonction est de produire un revenu financier à partir de l’exploitation de la terre (culture), de la forêt (sylviculture), de la mer, des lacs et des rivières (aquaculture, pêche), de l'animal de ferme (élevage) et de l'animal sauvage (chasse). Dans la pratique, cet exercice est pondéré par la disponibilité des ressources et les composantes de l'environnement biophysique et humain. La production et la distribution dans ce domaine sont intimement liées à l'économie politique dans un environnement global. (fr) , Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities. The history of agriculture began thousands of years ago. After gathering wild grains beginning at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers began to plant them around 11,500 years ago. Sheep, goats, pigs and cattle were domesticated over 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture in the twentieth century came to dominate agricultural output, though about 2 billion people still depended on subsistence agriculture. The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials (such as rubber). Food classes include cereals (grains), vegetables, fruits, cooking oils, meat, milk, eggs, and fungi. Over one-third of the world's workers are employed in agriculture, second only to the service sector, although in recent decades, the global trend of a decreasing number of agricultural workers continues, especially in developing countries, where smallholding is being overtaken by industrial agriculture and mechanization that brings an enormous crop yield increase. Modern agronomy, plant breeding, agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers, and technological developments have sharply increased crop yields, but cause ecological and environmental damage. Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about animal welfare and environmental damage. Environmental issues include contributions to global warming, depletion of aquifers, deforestation, antibiotic resistance, and other agricultural pollution. Agriculture is both a cause of and sensitive to environmental degradation, such as biodiversity loss, desertification, soil degradation, and global warming, all of which can cause decreases in crop yield. Genetically modified organisms are widely used, although some are banned in certain countries. (en)
Sustainable agriculture is farming in sustainable ways meeting society's present food and textile needs, without compromising the ability for current or future generations to meet their needs. It can be based on an understanding of ecosystem services. There are many methods to increase the sustainability of agriculture. When developing agriculture within sustainable food systems, it is important to develop flexible business process and farming practices. Agriculture has an enormous environmental footprint, playing a significant role in causing climate change (food systems are responsible for one third of the anthropogenic GHG emissions), water scarcity, water pollution, land degradation, deforestation and other processes; it is simultaneously causing environmental changes and being impacted by these changes. Sustainable agriculture consists of environment friendly methods of farming that allow the production of crops or livestock without damage to human or natural systems. It involves preventing adverse effects to soil, water, biodiversity, surrounding or downstream resources—as well as to those working or living on the farm or in neighboring areas. Elements of sustainable agriculture can include permaculture, agroforestry, mixed farming, multiple cropping, and crop rotation. Developing sustainable food systems contributes to the sustainability of the human population. For example, one of the best ways to mitigate climate change is to create sustainable food systems based on sustainable agriculture. Sustainable agriculture provides a potential solution to enable agricultural systems to feed a growing population within the changing environmental conditions. Besides sustainable farming practices, dietary shifts to sustainable diets are an intertwined way to substantially reduce environmental impacts. Numerous sustainability standards and certification systems exist, including organic certification, Rainforest Alliance, Fair Trade, UTZ Certified, GlobalGAP, Bird Friendly, and the Common Code for the Coffee Community (4C). (en)
L’agriculture urbaine et par extension, urbaine et périurbaine (AUP) est une forme émergente ou réémergente de pratiques agricoles effectuées en ville. Les activités agricoles (petits élevages, jardins, aquaculture...) urbaines et périurbaines ont toujours existé dans les villes ou à proximité pour des raisons pratiques d'approvisionnement alimentaire. Depuis l'antiquité, les villes ont ménagé des espaces d'habitation, d'artisanat (puis d'industrie) et d'agriculture. Avec la croissance démographique, les champs ont progressivement disparu du centre des villes, mais des parcelles plus petites et de très nombreux jardins occupent toujours une place significative des villes. Le cycle court de production donne l'avantage à cette pratique. Un mètre carré de jardin peut fournir 20 kg de nourriture par an. Actuellement, à l'échelle de la planète, on assiste à un intérêt croissant des divers acteurs de la société pour les projets d'agriculture urbaine en tant que vecteur de transition écologique : alimentation durable, lien social et bien-être des populations, projets participatifs, éducation à l'environnement, paysages, etc. (fr) +, La agricultura urbana, también conocida como periurbana (esto es cultivada en el entorno inmediato de las ciudades, a menudo en terrenos calificados o previstos para el crecimiento de la ciudad o la dotación de equipamientos o infraestructuras), es la práctica de la agricultura con cultivos dentro del área urbana. La tierra usada para las huertas urbanas puede ser privada, pública o residencial en espacios como balcones, paredes, techos de edificios, calles públicas o márgenes y antiguos sotos deforestados de los ríos. En muchas ocasiones la agricultura se practica en terrenos ocupados, de propiedades públicas o privadas en estado de abandono. La agricultura urbana se realiza para actividades de producción de alimentos. Contribuye a la soberanía alimentaria y a proporción de alimentos seguros de dos maneras: incrementando la cantidad de alimentos disponibles para los habitantes de ciudades, y en segundo lugar provee verduras y frutas frescas para los consumidores urbanos. Debido a que promueve el ahorro de energía, la producción local de alimentos, la agricultura urbana y periurbana son actividades de sostenibilidad. Puede sin embargo originar problemas y conflictos sociales en el caso de utilización de terrenos privados abandonados para la ubicación de "huertos familiares" clandestinos. Estas actuaciones incontroladas pueden también plantear problemas derivados de la falta de calidad de las aguas utilizadas para el riego, a menudo aguas residuales. Requiere además de un tipo de gestión que va más allá de los agronómico o incluso lo social, pues pasa a ser un aspecto de la . (es) +, Urban agriculture, urban farming, or urban gardening is the practice of cultivating, processing, and distributing food in or around urban areas. It encompasses a complex and diverse mix of food production activities, including fisheries and forestry, in cities in both developed and developing countries. The term also applies to urban area activities of animal husbandry, aquaculture, beekeeping, and horticulture. These activities occur in peri-urban areas as well, although peri-urban agriculture may have different characteristics. Urban agriculture can reflect varying levels of economic and social development. It may be a social movement for sustainable communities, where organic growers, "foodies", and "locavores" form social networks founded on a shared ethos of nature and community holism. These networks can evolve when receiving formal institutional support, becoming integrated into local town planning as a "transition town" movement for sustainable urban development. For others, food security, nutrition, and income generation are key motivations for the practice. In both scenarios, more direct access to fresh vegetables, fruits, and meat products through urban agriculture can improve food security and food safety. (en) +
L'agriculture vivrière est une agriculture essentiellement tournée vers l'autoconsommation et l'économie de subsistance. La production, rarement excédentaire, n'est destinée ni à l'industrie agroalimentaire ni à l'exportation. Elle est en grande partie auto-consommée par les paysans et la population locale. Cette forme d'agriculture, courante dans les jardins du monde entier, demeure d'une importance capitale dans les pays les moins avancés où elle permet aux populations rurales, sans autre ressource, de se nourrir. Ses faibles rendements, générant peu d'excédent, ne permettent toutefois pas à ces populations de sortir de la pauvreté. Elle impose également d'accepter de ne consommer que des produits de saison et de gérer la période de soudure. Le caractère localisé de la production, sans accès aux marchés mondiaux, rend en outre les agriculteurs vivriers particulièrement vulnérables aux conséquences des événements climatiques locaux (sécheresse, catastrophe naturelle, saison des pluies tardive ou précoce, etc...). Elle représente environ 20 % de la production alimentaire mondiale. Par l'importance qu'elle accorde aux semences paysannes — on estime à environ 1,4 milliard les agriculteurs utilisant des procédés traditionnels de sélection — elle favorise fortement la biodiversité. (fr) +, Subsistence agriculture occurs when farmers grow food crops to meet the needs of themselves and their families on smallholdings. Subsistence agriculturalists target farm output for survival and for mostly local requirements, with little or no surplus. Planting decisions occur principally with an eye toward what the family will need during the coming year, and only secondarily toward market prices. Tony Waters, a professor of sociology, defines "subsistence peasants" as "people who grow what they eat, build their own houses, and live without regularly making purchases in the marketplace." Despite the self-sufficiency in subsistence farming, today most subsistence farmers also participate in trade to some degree. Although their amount of trade as measured in cash is less than that of consumers in countries with modern complex markets, they use these markets mainly to obtain goods, not to generate income for food; these goods are typically not necessary for survival and may include sugar, iron roofing-sheets, bicycles, used clothing, and so forth. Many have important trade contacts and trade items that they can produce because of their special skills or special access to resources valued in the marketplace. Most subsistence farmers today operate in developing countries. Subsistence agriculture generally features: small capital/finance requirements, mixed cropping, limited use of agrochemicals (e.g. pesticides and fertilizer), unimproved varieties of crops and animals, little or no surplus yield for sale, use of crude/traditional tools (e.g. hoes, machetes, and cutlasses), mainly the production of food crops, small scattered plots of land, reliance on unskilled labor (often family members), and (generally) low yields. (en) +
S'alimenter, manger, se nourrir L’alimentation est le choix et l'intégration de la nourriture (ensemble d'aliments) par un être vivant. Une fois les aliments choisis et intégrés (par exemple par ingestion), les processus de nutrition permettent à l'organisme de survivre et de fonctionner. Chez l'humain, l'alimentation caractérise aussi la manière de récolter, stocker et préparer les aliments, de le cuisiner et de s'alimenter, qui s'intéresse davantage au domaine culturel, social et éthique voire du religieux (tabous alimentaires, jeûne, , etc.). (fr) +, Eating (also known as consuming) is the ingestion of food, typically to provide a heterotrophic organism with energy and to allow for growth. Animals and other heterotrophs must eat in order to survive — carnivores eat other animals, herbivores eat plants, omnivores consume a mixture of both plant and animal matter, and detritivores eat detritus. Fungi digest organic matter outside their bodies as opposed to animals that digest their food inside their bodies. For humans, eating is an activity of daily living. Some individuals may limit their amount of nutritional intake. This may be a result of a lifestyle choice, due to hunger or famine, as part of a diet or as religious fasting. (en) +
Les jardins familiaux, ou jardins ouvriers, apparus à la fin du XIXe siècle, sont des parcelles de terrain mises à la disposition des habitants par les municipalités. Ces parcelles, affectées le plus souvent à la culture potagère, furent initialement destinées à améliorer les conditions de vie des ouvriers en leur procurant un équilibre social et une autosubsistance alimentaire. En France, les jardins ouvriers prendront dans le langage officiel (pas dans le langage courant) l'appellation de jardins familiaux après la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Aujourd'hui, ils bénéficient d'un regain d'intérêt en contribuant à créer à proximité des villes des « oasis de verdure » qui sont utiles face à la menace du réchauffement climatique. Ils répondent aussi aux préoccupations actuelles de produire localement des légumes par des catégories de population à faibles revenus et participent à créer du « lien social » dans les zones urbanisées. (fr) +, An allotment (British English), or in North America, a community garden, is a plot of land made available for individual, non-commercial gardening or growing food plants, so forming a kitchen garden away from the residence of the user. Such plots are formed by subdividing a piece of land into a few or up to several hundred parcels that are assigned to individuals or families. Such parcels are cultivated individually, contrary to other community garden types where the entire area is tended collectively by a group of people. In countries that do not use the term "allotment (garden)", a "community garden" may refer to individual small garden plots as well as to a single, large piece of land gardened collectively by a group of people. The term "victory garden" is also still sometimes used, especially when a community garden dates back to the First or Second World War. The individual size of a parcel typically suits the needs of a family, and often the plots include a shed for tools and shelter, and sometimes a hut for seasonal or weekend accommodation. The individual gardeners are usually organised in an allotment association, which leases or is granted the land from an owner who may be a public, private or ecclesiastical entity, and who usually stipulates that it be only used for gardening (i.e., growing vegetables, fruits and flowers), but not for permanent residential purposes (this is usually also required by zoning laws). The gardeners have to pay a small membership fee to the association, and have to abide by the corresponding constitution and by-laws. However, the membership entitles them to certain democratic rights. (en) +
Alter-globalization (also known as alternative globalization or alter-mundialization—from the French alter-mondialisation—and overlapping with the global justice movement) is a social movement whose proponents support global cooperation and interaction, but oppose what they describe as the negative effects of economic globalization, considering it to often work to the detriment of, or to not adequately promote, human values such as environmental and climate protection, economic justice, labor protection, protection of indigenous cultures, peace and civil liberties. The name may have been derived from a popular slogan of the movement, namely "another world is possible", which came out of the World Social Forum. The alter-globalization movement is a cooperative movement designed to "protest the direction and perceived negative economic, political, social, cultural and ecological consequences of neoliberal globalization". Many alter-globalists seek to avoid the "disestablishment of local economies and disastrous humanitarian consequences". Most members of this movement shun the label "anti-globalization" as pejorative and incorrect since they actively support human activity on a global scale and do not oppose economic globalization per se. Instead they see their movement as an alternative to what they term neo-liberal globalization in which international institutions (the World Trade Organization, World Bank, International Monetary Fund and the like) and major corporations devote themselves to enriching the developed world while giving little or no attention to what critics say are the detrimental effects of their actions on the people and environments of Less Developed Countries, countries whose governments are often too weak or too corrupt to resist or regulate them. This is not to be confused with proletarian internationalism as put forth by communists in that alter-globalists do not necessarily oppose the free market, but a subset of free-market practices characterized by certain business attitudes and political policies that they say often lead to violations of human rights. (en)
L’anthropomorphisme est l'attribution de caractéristiques du comportement ou de la morphologie humaine à d'autres entités comme des dieux, des animaux, des objets, des phénomènes, des idées et voire à des êtres d'un autre monde le cas échéant. Dérivé du grec ancien ἄνθρωπος / ánthrōpos (« être humain ») et μορφή / morphḗ (« forme »), le terme a été crédité au milieu des années 1700. Le terme est créé par le baron d'Holbach et développé dans son Système de la nature.[réf. nécessaire] Des exemples incluent notamment les animaux et les plantes, ainsi que des forces de la nature comme le vent, la pluie ou le Soleil sont décrits comme des phénomènes à motivations humaines, ou comme possédant la capacité de comprendre et réfléchir. En littérature, on parlera de « personnification ». (fr) +, Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology. Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics to abstract concepts such as nations, emotions, and natural forces, such as seasons and weather. Both have ancient roots as storytelling and artistic devices, and most cultures have traditional fables with anthropomorphized animals as characters. People have also routinely attributed human emotions and behavioral traits to wild as well as domesticated animals. (en) +
L'anticapitalisme regroupe un ensemble de mouvements qui s'opposent au capitalisme. Les aspects visés diffèrent selon les conceptions et peuvent notamment concerner, sans y être limités, le profit et l'importance de l'argent, la spéculation, le salariat, la concurrence économique, les effets considérés comme des effets néfastes du capitalisme sur la société telles les inégalités économiques et sociales qu'il entraîne et la considération de son « immoralité » consécutive, la course d'accumulation induite et ses conséquences pour l'environnement, ou les formes sociales de base du capitalisme. Un spectre politique large et très divers s'est réclamé ou se réclame de l'anticapitalisme. (fr) +, Anti-capitalism is a political ideology and movement encompassing a variety of attitudes and ideas that oppose capitalism. In this sense, anti-capitalists are those who wish to replace capitalism with another type of economic system, such as socialism or communism. (en) +, El término anticapitalismo se refiere a una extensa colección de ideologías, movimientos y actitudes que se oponen en forma total, o parcial, al capitalismo. En general, algunos anticapitalistas pueden estar a favor de algún tipo de colectivismo o comunitarismo económico o social, pero no todos y no necesariamente (existen anticapitalistas que defienden diferentes niveles de propiedad privada). Lo siguiente es una breve descripción de las ideologías, de los puntos de vista y de las tendencias más notables del contracapitalismo. (es) +
L’apprentissage est un ensemble de mécanismes menant à l'acquisition de savoir-faire, de savoirs ou de connaissances. L'acteur de l'apprentissage est appelé apprenant. On peut opposer l'apprentissage à l'enseignement dont le but est de dispenser des connaissances et savoirs, l'acteur de l'enseignement étant l'enseignant. Pour la psychologie inspirée du béhaviorisme, l’apprentissage est vu comme la mise en relation entre un événement provoqué par l'extérieur (stimulus) et une réaction adéquate du sujet, qui cause un changement de comportement qui est persistant, mesurable, et spécifique ou permet à l’individu de formuler une nouvelle construction mentale ou réviser une construction mentale préalable. L’historien Philippe Ariès dans son ouvrage L’enfant et la vie familiale sous l’Ancien Régime (Paris, Seuil, 1975), insiste sur l’importance qu’il convient d’attribuer à l’apprentissage. Il force les enfants à vivre au milieu des adultes, qui leur communiquent ainsi le savoir-faire et le savoir-vivre. Le mélange des âges qu’il entraîne lui paraît un des traits dominants de notre société, du milieu du Moyen Âge au XVIIIe siècle. La psychologie du développement étudie les changements, acquisitions et pertes, de la vie embryonnaire à la mort. L'apprentissage est un concept important étudié par cette discipline. On a découvert en 2016 que l'apprentissage pouvait exister même dans certains organismes unicellulaires. (fr) +, Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals, and some machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants. Some learning is immediate, induced by a single event (e.g. being burned by a hot stove), but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences. The changes induced by learning often last a lifetime, and it is hard to distinguish learned material that seems to be "lost" from that which cannot be retrieved. Human learning starts at birth (it might even start before in terms of an embryo's need for both interaction with, and freedom within its environment within the womb.) and continues until death as a consequence of ongoing interactions between people and their environment. The nature and processes involved in learning are studied in many established fields (including educational psychology, neuropsychology, experimental psychology, cognitive sciences, and pedagogy), as well as emerging fields of knowledge (e.g. with a shared interest in the topic of learning from safety events such as incidents/accidents, or in collaborative learning health systems). Research in such fields has led to the identification of various sorts of learning. For example, learning may occur as a result of habituation, or classical conditioning, operant conditioning or as a result of more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals. Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness. Learning that an aversive event can't be avoided or escaped may result in a condition called learned helplessness. There is evidence for human behavioral learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation, indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in development. Play has been approached by several theorists as a form of learning. Children experiment with the world, learn the rules, and learn to interact through play. Lev Vygotsky agrees that play is pivotal for children's development, since they make meaning of their environment through playing educational games. For Vygotsky, however, play is the first form of learning language and communication, and the stage where a child begins to understand rules and symbols. This has led to a view that learning in organisms is always related to semiosis, and often associated with representational systems/activity. (en)
L'architecture est l'art majeur de concevoir des espaces et de bâtir des édifices, en respectant des règles de construction empiriques ou scientifiques, ainsi que des concepts esthétiques, classiques ou nouveaux, de forme et d'agencement d'espace, en y incluant les aspects sociaux et environnementaux liés à la fonction de l'édifice et à son intégration dans son environnement, quelle que soit cette fonction : habitable, sépulcrale, rituelle, institutionnelle, religieuse, défensive, artisanale, commerciale, scientifique, signalétique, muséale, industrielle, monumentale, décorative, paysagère, voire purement artistique. C'est pourquoi l'architecture est définie comme « une expression de la culture ». Elle est reconnue comme le premier des arts majeurs dans la classification des arts, communément admise, du XXe siècle, des 9 arts majeurs et fait partie des beaux-arts. L'Architecture désigne également l'ensemble des connaissances et des techniques de cet art de concevoir et de construire des structures complexes, englobant les édifices terrestres, les espaces et les paysages modifiés par l'homme répondant à des critères architecturaux, les artefacts habitables naviguant sur l'eau et sous l'eau (architecture navale) et dans l'espace (architecture spatiale), que l'humanité a pu imaginer et réaliser au fil des millénaires. L'architecture intègre le domaine de la planification spatiale et met en pratique les méthodes de la planification au service de l'aménagement du territoire et de l'urbanisme. On distingue différentes échelles de la planification spatiale :
* le territoire national : l'aménagement du territoire ;
* la région, le massif ou une bande littorale : la planification régionale ;
* le quartier, la ville, jusqu'à l'agglomération : l'urbanisme ;
* l'îlot ou un groupe de bâtiments dont la composition n'atteint pas la superficie du quartier : la composition urbaine ;
* le bâtiment : l'architecture. C'est ainsi que dans le cadre des études d'aménagement et urbanisme, on retrouve l'architecte le plus souvent autour des réflexions de la composition urbaine via la pratique de la conception urbaine. (fr) , Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and constructing buildings or other structures. The term comes from Latin architectura; from Ancient Greek ἀρχιτέκτων (arkhitéktōn) 'architect'; from ἀρχι- (arkhi-) 'chief', and τέκτων (téktōn) 'creator'. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements. The practice, which began in the prehistoric era, has been used as a way of expressing culture for civilizations on all seven continents. For this reason, architecture is considered to be a form of art. Texts on architecture have been written since ancient times. The earliest surviving text on architectural theories is the 1st century AD treatise De architectura by the Roman architect Vitruvius, according to whom a good building embodies firmitas, utilitas, and venustas (durability, utility, and beauty). Centuries later, Leon Battista Alberti developed his ideas further, seeing beauty as an objective quality of buildings to be found in their proportions. Giorgio Vasari wrote Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects and put forward the idea of style in the Western arts in the 16th century. In the 19th century, Louis Sullivan declared that "form follows function". "Function" began to replace the classical "utility" and was understood to include not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural dimensions. The idea of sustainable architecture was introduced in the late 20th century. Architecture began as rural, oral vernacular architecture that developed from trial and error to successful replication. Ancient urban architecture was preoccupied with building religious structures and buildings symbolizing the political power of rulers until Greek and Roman architecture shifted focus to civic virtues. Indian and Chinese architecture influenced forms all over Asia and Buddhist architecture in particular took diverse local flavors. In fact, During the European Middle Ages, pan-European styles of Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals and abbeys emerged while the Renaissance favored Classical forms implemented by architects known by name. Later, the roles of architects and engineers became separated. Modern architecture began after World War I as an avant-garde movement that sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. Emphasis was put on modern techniques, materials, and simplified geometric forms, paving the way for high-rise superstructures. Many architects became disillusioned with modernism which they perceived as ahistorical and anti-aesthetic, and postmodern and contemporary architecture developed. Over the years, the field of architectural construction has branched out to include everything from ship design to interior decorating. (en)
L’art est une activité, le produit de cette activité ou l'idée que l'on s'en fait, qui s'adresse délibérément aux sens, aux émotions, aux intuitions et à l'intellect. On peut affirmer que l'art est le propre de l'humain ou de toute autre conscience, en tant que découlant d'une intention, et que cette activité n'a pas de fonction pratique définie. On considère le terme « art » par opposition à la nature « conçue comme puissance produisant sans réflexion », et à la science « conçue comme pure connaissance indépendante des applications ». Effectivement, les définitions de ce concept varient largement selon les époques et les lieux, et aucune d'entre elles n'est universellement acceptée. Ainsi, pour Marcel Mauss, « un objet d'art, par définition, est l'objet reconnu comme tel par un groupe ». C'est pourquoi les collections de productions artistiques peuvent être classées et appréciées diversement selon les cultures, les auteurs, les institutions et les époques. En Europe, depuis la fin du XVIIIe siècle, ce terme recouvre principalement les produits dits des « beaux arts » tels que la sculpture, l'architecture, les arts graphiques (dont la peinture ou le dessin), et aussi la musique, la danse, la poésie (à prendre au sens classique du terme, le mot poésie désignant à la fois la poésie lyrique, qui correspond au sens moderne de la poésie, la poésie tragique, c'est-à-dire le théâtre et la poésie épique) et la littérature. On y ajoute depuis, parmi d'autres, l'image en mouvement (le cinéma, la télévision, l'art numérique), le spectacle vivant (le théâtre, le mime), la photographie, la bande dessinée, et, plus largement encore, la mode, bien que celle-ci soit plus couramment associée au domaine de l'artisanat de par son usage et sa fonctionnalité. La classification des arts n'est toutefois pas universelle et rechercher une classification unanime semble impossible, voire un anachronisme. Cette conception de l'art comme activité autonome, comme production par des artistes d'objets que l'on s'accorde à trouver beaux d'après une préférence de goût, date des XVIIIe et XIXe siècles. Mais on considère souvent que l'art moderne et contemporain ont délaissé le cantonnement aux seules notions de beau ou de style intemporel pour plus généralement chercher à interpeller voire 'déranger' l'observateur, par exemple par la transgression ou la rupture. Au XXIe siècle, on assiste à la fois à la prolifération de la notion d'art (absorbant les civilisations anciennes, intégrant différents supports et obligeant à parler d'« arts », le tout avec des productions en expansion planétaire exponentielle[réf. nécessaire]) et en même temps à son dépassement par la civilisation du tout-écran, qui mêle tout. Un tel phénomène incite à donner des repères et à ne pas appliquer la notion occidentale d'« art » à l'ensemble de ce qui a une visée esthétique sur tous les continents. Pour ce faire, il importe d'établir la chronologie et la géographie des productions dans une histoire générale de la production humaine. (fr) , Art is a diverse range of human activity, and resulting product, that involves creative or imaginative talent expressive of technical proficiency, beauty, emotional power, or conceptual ideas. There is no generally agreed definition of what constitutes art, and its interpretation has varied greatly throughout history and across cultures. In the Western tradition, the three classical branches of visual art are painting, sculpture, and architecture. Theatre, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature, music, film and other media such as interactive media, are included in a broader definition of the arts. Until the 17th century, art referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. In modern usage after the 17th century, where aesthetic considerations are paramount, the fine arts are separated and distinguished from acquired skills in general, such as the decorative or applied arts. The nature of art and related concepts, such as creativity and interpretation, are explored in a branch of philosophy known as aesthetics. The resulting artworks are studied in the professional fields of art criticism and the history of art. (en) +
La définition de l'art public est incertaine et soumise à des controverses. L'art public est, selon certains, l'ensemble des œuvres réalisées sur commande d'une collectivité publique, étatique ou locale, placées dans l'espace urbain. Certains auteurs incluent les performances théâtrales et actions éphémères. Pour d'autres, art public est un terme générique décrivant les œuvres d'art conçues et exécutées pour être placées dans un espace public, en dehors des espaces explicitement consacrés à l'exposition d'œuvres d'art tels que les musées, galeries, etc.. Une troisième catégorie d'auteurs désigne l’art public comme la volonté d'artistes de se mettre au service du public, hors, voire contre, le cadre institutionnel. (fr) +, Public art is art in any media whose form, function and meaning are created for the general public through a public process. It is a specific art genre with its own professional and critical discourse. Public art is visually and physically accessible to the public; it is installed in public space in both outdoor and indoor settings. Public art seeks to embody public or universal concepts rather than commercial, partisan or personal concepts or interests. Notably, public art is also the direct or indirect product of a public process of creation, procurement, and/or maintenance. Independent art created or staged in or near the public realm (for example, graffiti, street art) lacks official or tangible public sanction has not been recognized as part of the public art genre, however this attitude is changing due to the efforts of several street artists. Such unofficial artwork may exist on private or public property immediately adjacent to the public realm, or in natural settings but, however ubiquitous, it sometimes falls outside the definition of public art by its absence of public process or public sanction as "bona fide" public art. (en) +
A popular assembly (or people's assembly) is a gathering called to address issues of importance to participants. Assemblies tend to be freely open to participation and operate by direct democracy. Some assemblies are of people from a location, some from a given workplace, industry or educational establishment others are called to address a specific issue. The term is often used to describe gatherings that address, what participants feel are, the effects of a democratic deficit in representative democratic systems. Sometimes assemblies are created to form an alternative power structure, other times they work with other forms of government. (en) +
Community-supported agriculture (CSA model) or cropsharing is a system that connects producers and consumers within the food system closer by allowing the consumer to subscribe to the harvest of a certain farm or group of farms. It is an alternative socioeconomic model of agriculture and food distribution that allows the producer and consumer to share the risks of farming. The model is a subcategory of civic agriculture that has an overarching goal of strengthening a sense of community through local markets. In return for subscribing to a harvest, subscribers receive either a weekly or bi-weekly box of produce or other farm goods. This includes in-season fruits, vegetables, and can expand to dried goods, eggs, milk, meat, etc. Typically, farmers try to cultivate a relationship with subscribers by sending weekly letters of what is happening on the farm, inviting them for harvest, or holding an open-farm event. Some CSAs provide for contributions of labor in lieu of a portion of subscription costs. The term CSA is mostly used in the United States and Canada, but a variety of similar production and economic sub-systems are in use worldwide, in Austria and Germany as Solidarische Landwirtschaft ("solidarity farming") and in the UK mainly in the vegetable box scheme. (en) +
Une association syndicale est une personne morale qui regroupe des propriétaires de biens immobiliers voisins, pour la réalisation d'aménagements spécifiques ou leur entretien, comme la création et l'entretien de voiries privées, de canaux d'irrigation, de digues contre les inondations... Malgré l'usage du terme d'association, ces structures sont sans rapport avec les associations de la loi de 1901 (de 1908 en Alsace-Moselle), qui constituent la base juridique du tissu associatif français. (fr) +
, An atmosphere (from Ancient Greek ἀτμός (atmós) 'vapour, steam', and σφαῖρα (sphaîra) 'sphere') is a layer of gas or layers of gases that envelop a planet, and is held in place by the gravity of the planetary body. A planet retains an atmosphere when the gravity is great and the temperature of the atmosphere is low. A stellar atmosphere is the outer region of a star, which includes the layers above the opaque photosphere; stars of low temperature might have outer atmospheres containing compound molecules. The atmosphere of Earth is composed of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon (0.9%), carbon dioxide (0.04%) and trace gases. Most organisms use oxygen for respiration; lightning and bacteria perform nitrogen fixation to produce ammonia that is used to make nucleotides and amino acids; plants, algae, and cyanobacteria use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. The layered composition of the atmosphere minimises the harmful effects of sunlight, ultraviolet radiation, the solar wind, and cosmic rays to protect organisms from genetic damage. The current composition of the atmosphere of the Earth is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms.[1] (en) +
L'auto-organisation ou autoorganisation est un phénomène par lequel un système s'organise lui-même. Les systèmes physiques, biologiques ou écologiques, sociaux, ont tendance à s'organiser d'eux-mêmes. Il s'agit soit de l'organisation initiale du système lors de son émergence spontanée, soit lorsque le système existe déjà de l'apparition d'une organisation plus structurée ou complexe. L'auto-organisation agit ainsi à l'encontre de l'entropie (on parle alors de néguentropie), qui est une mesure de désordre. L'auto-organisation se produit par des interactions internes et externes au système, au sein de son milieu et avec lui. Elle consomme de l'énergie qui sert ainsi à établir et maintenir le système auto-organisé. L'auto-organisation s'oppose aux cas où un système est organisé ou réorganisé de force de l'extérieur, c'est-à-dire à la violence, aux actes de pouvoir : cela rejoint aussi le contraste entre autonomie et hétéronomie. Typiquement, un système auto-organisé a des propriétés émergentes. Passé un seuil critique de complexité, les systèmes peuvent aussi changer d'état, ou passer d'une phase instable à une phase stable ou inversement. S'ils croissent, leur croissance peut changer de rythme ; on peut observer le passage d'une croissance initiale d'apparence exponentielle à une croissance logistique en cas de diminution des ressources. (fr) +, Self-organization, also called spontaneous order in the social sciences, is a process where some form of overall order arises from local interactions between parts of an initially disordered system. The process can be spontaneous when sufficient energy is available, not needing control by any external agent. It is often triggered by seemingly random fluctuations, amplified by positive feedback. The resulting organization is wholly decentralized, distributed over all the components of the system. As such, the organization is typically robust and able to survive or self-repair substantial perturbation. Chaos theory discusses self-organization in terms of islands of predictability in a sea of chaotic unpredictability. Self-organization occurs in many physical, chemical, biological, robotic, and cognitive systems. Examples of self-organization include crystallization, thermal convection of fluids, chemical oscillation, animal swarming, neural circuits, and black markets. (en) +
Selon certains, l’autogestion (du grec autos, « soi-même », et « gestion ») est le fait, pour une structure ou un groupe d’individus considéré, de confier la prise des décisions le concernant à l’ensemble de ses membres. Dans cette optique, l'autogestion n'impliquant pas d'intermédiaire gouvernemental ou décisionnel, elle s'inscrirait de fait dans la philosophie anarchiste ou libertaire. Pour d'autres, et notamment la Confédération générale du logement durant les années 1980, l'autogestion est « la prise en charge de leurs intérêts par les intéressés eux-mêmes ». Une telle conception implique que, lorsque divers intérêts coexistent, chaque groupe apprend a gérer seul ses intérêts spécifiques, dans le respect des intérêts des autres, et cela sans élite administrative ou intellectuelle. Cette dynamique fait suite à des pratiques traditionnelles, notamment chrétiennes en Occident ou bouddhistes en Orient . Enfin, selon certains, l'autogestion suppose, plus politiquement, la mise en place d'une démocratie directe, ce qui induit :
* la suppression de toute distinction entre dirigeants et dirigés (Principe d') ;
* la transparence et la légitimité des décisions ;
* la non-appropriation par certains des richesses produites par la collectivité ;
* l'affirmation de l'aptitude des humains à s'organiser sans dirigeant. Cette conception se construit en général explicitement contre des pratiques qualifiées de hiérarchiques, autoritaires, verticales, contre des formes de dépossession que constitueraient certains modes d'organisation. En d'autres termes, ce type d'autogestion permettrait une réappropriation d'une forme d'organisation collective. Par ailleurs, cette définition permet des pratiques d'autogestion qui ne se limitent pas au seul champ économique. (fr) +,
In developmental psychology and moral, political, and bioethical philosophy, autonomy is the capacity to make an informed, uncoerced decision. Autonomous organizations or institutions are independent or self-governing. Autonomy can also be defined from a human resources perspective, where it denotes a (relatively high) level of discretion granted to an employee in his or her work. In such cases, autonomy is known to generally increase job satisfaction. Self-actualized individuals are thought to operate autonomously of external expectations. In a medical context, respect for a patient's personal autonomy is considered one of many fundamental ethical principles in medicine. (en) +, L'autonomie désigne la capacité d'un objet, individu ou système à se gouverner soi-même, selon ses propres règles. Dans d'autres cas, elle fait référence aux propriétés d'une entité qui est capable de fonctionner de manière indépendante, sans être contrôlée de l'extérieur ou sans des apports (matériels, énergétiques, etc) en provenance de l'extérieur L'autonomie est la capacité d'une personne à subvenir à ses propres besoins. Comparés aux animaux, les êtres humains ont besoin de beaucoup d'attention et de soins, et d'un grand nombre d'années avant de devenir autonomes. Par exemple, un cheval sait se tenir debout, se nourrir et marcher seulement quelques minutes après sa naissance, tandis qu’un être humain a besoin d’environ un an pour atteindre ce point. (fr) +
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Barcelone en commun (en catalan : Barcelona en comú, en espagnol : Barcelona en común), initialement Gagnons Barcelone (en catalan : Guanyem Barcelona), est un parti politique espagnol de gauche radicale et écologiste, constitué en vue des élections municipales de 2015 à Barcelone, qu'il a remportées. Après quatre ans de gouvernement conjoint avec d'autre formations de gauche, le parti se représente aux élections municipales de 2019, à l'issue desquelles il arrive deuxième et perd un siège. (fr) +, Barcelona en Comú (Catalan for "Barcelona in Common") is a citizen platform launched in June 2014 that is currently governing in minority in the City of Barcelona. Its policy agenda includes defending social justice and community rights, promoting participatory democracy, introducing mechanisms to tackle corruption, and developing a new model of tourism for Barcelona. (en) +
Une bibliothèque (du grec ancien βιϐλιοθήκη : biblio, « livre » ; thêkê, « dépôt ») est le lieu où est conservée et lue une collection organisée de livres. Il existe des bibliothèques privées — y compris de riches bibliothèques ouvertes au public — et des bibliothèques publiques. Les bibliothèques proposent souvent d'autres documents (journaux, périodiques, enregistrements sonores, enregistrements vidéo, cartes et plans, partitions) ainsi que des accès à internet et sont parfois appelées médiathèques. La majorité des bibliothèques (municipales, universitaires) permettent gratuitement la consultation sur place ainsi que le prêt de documents. D'autres, comme la Bibliothèque publique d'information et la bibliothèque nationale de France notamment, n'autorisent que la consultation sur place. Elles peuvent alors être divisées en salles de lectures, ouvertes au public, et en magasins bibliothécaires, fermés, pour le stockage de livres moins consultés. D'autres espaces, ouverts ou non au public, peuvent s'ajouter. En 2010, avec plus de 144,5 millions de documents, dont 21,8 millions de livres, la plus grande bibliothèque du monde est la bibliothèque du Congrès à Washington D.C.. Néanmoins, la collection cumulée de livres des deux bibliothèques nationales russes atteint 32,5 millions de volumes et la collection de la British Library 150 millions d'articles. D'après l'Organisation des Nations unies pour l'éducation, la science et la culture la plus vieille bibliothèque du monde encore en activité est la bibliothèque Al Quaraouiyine de Fès au Maroc, elle renferme quatre mille manuscrits d'une valeur inestimable ayant appartenu à des scientifiques universels comme le géographe Al Idrissi, le botaniste Al-Ghassani, ou encore le médecin Avenzoar. (fr) +, A library is a collection of materials, books or media that are accessible for use and not just for display purposes. A library provides physical (hard copies) or digital access (soft copies) materials, and may be a physical location or a virtual space, or both. A library's collection can include printed materials and other physical resources in many formats such as DVD, CD and cassette as well as access to information, music or other content held on bibliographic databases. A library, which may vary widely in size, may be organized for use and maintained by a public body such as a government; an institution such as a school or museum; a corporation; or a private individual. In addition to providing materials, libraries also provide the services of librarians who are trained and experts at finding, selecting, circulating and organizing information and at interpreting information needs, navigating and analyzing very large amounts of information with a variety of resources. Library buildings often provide quiet areas for studying, as well as common areas for group study and collaboration, and may provide public facilities for access to their electronic resources; for instance: computers and access to the Internet. The library's clientele and services offered vary depending on its type: users of a public library have different needs from those of a special library or academic library, for example. Libraries may also be community hubs, where programs are delivered and people engage in lifelong learning. Modern libraries extend their services beyond the physical walls of a building by providing material accessible by electronic means, including from home via the Internet. The services the library offers are variously described as library services, information services, or the combination "library and information services", although different institutions and sources define such terminology differently. (en) +
Le bien commun est une notion développée d'abord par la théologie et la philosophie, puis saisie par le droit, les sciences sociales et invoquée par de nombreux acteurs politiques. Elle désigne l'idée d'un bien patrimonial partagé par les membres d'une communauté, au sens spirituel et moral du mot « bien », de même qu'au sens matériel et pratique (ce dont on dispose ou ce qu'on possède). En Occident, la philosophie s'interroge au moins depuis Platon et Aristote sur ce qui nous constitue en tant que communauté. Le concept de bien commun figure dans la théologie chrétienne à partir de Thomas d'Aquin, au XIIIe siècle, où il désigne l'inclination naturelle de la Création dans son ensemble (dont la communauté humaine) vers le Bien qui est Dieu. Dans une perspective chrétienne, la recherche du bien commun est alors le fondement de toute organisation sociale et politique. Cette notion est souvent utilisée pour les questions relatives à la propriété de certaines ressources et désigne la relation entre l'accès à des ressources équitablement partagées et des intérêts qui soudent les membres d'une communauté et contribuent à son existence. Pour le politologue et économiste italien Riccardo Petrella, le bien commun est ce qui fait vivre les sociétés. Selon l'économiste français Jean-Marie Harribey (2011), cette notion, qui met aussi en jeu celle de propriété, serait notamment liée à la prise de conscience progressive de l'existence d'un patrimoine commun de l'humanité. Dans le langage courant, le bien commun a souvent un sens moins spirituel, mais correspond toujours à l'idée d'un patrimoine matériel ou immatériel de la communauté humaine (parfois élargi aux autres espèces vivantes) nécessaire à la vie, au bonheur ou à un épanouissement collectif. (fr) +, In philosophy, economics, and political science, the common good (also commonwealth, general welfare, or public benefit) is either what is shared and beneficial for all or most members of a given community, or alternatively, what is achieved by citizenship, collective action, and active participation in the realm of politics and public service. The concept of the common good differs significantly among philosophical doctrines. Early conceptions of the common good were set out by Ancient Greek philosophers, including Aristotle and Plato. One understanding of the common good rooted in Aristotle's philosophy remains in common usage today, referring to what one contemporary scholar calls the "good proper to, and attainable only by, the community, yet individually shared by its members." The concept of common good developed through the work of political theorists, moral philosophers, and public economists, including Thomas Aquinas, Niccolò Machiavelli, John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, James Madison, Adam Smith, Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, John Maynard Keynes, John Rawls, and many other thinkers. In contemporary economic theory, a common good is any good which is rivalrous yet non-excludable, while the common good, by contrast, arises in the subfield of welfare economics and refers to the outcome of a social welfare function. Such a social welfare function, in turn, would be rooted in a moral theory of the good (such as utilitarianism). Social choice theory aims to understand processes by which the common good may or may not be realized in societies through the study of collective decision rules. Public choice theory applies microeconomic methodology to the study of political science in order to explain how private interests affect political activities and outcomes. (en) +
Real estate is property consisting of land and the buildings on it, along with its natural resources such as crops, minerals or water; immovable property of this nature; an interest vested in this (also) an item of real property, (more generally) buildings or housing in general. In terms of law, real is in relation to land property and is different from personal property while estate means the "interest" a person has in that land property. Real estate is different from personal property, which is not permanently attached to the land, such as vehicles, boats, jewelry, furniture, tools and the rolling stock of a farm. In the United States, the transfer, owning, or acquisition of real estate can be through business corporations, individuals, nonprofit corporations, fiduciaries, or any legal entity as seen within the law of each U.S. state. (en) +
Les biens communaux sont l'ensemble des biens appartenant à un seigneur et utilisé en commun par les habitants d'une communauté rurale. En général, ce sont des bois, des prés, des landes et des marais. La plupart de ces biens appartiennent à un seigneur qui en a concédé l'usage soit à titre gratuit, soit en échange de corvée soit en échange d'un cens. À partir du XVIIe siècle, les seigneurs essayent de reprendre ces terrains, surtout lorsqu'ils sont boisés, en obtenant des triages ou des cantonnements, afin de les exploiter plus intensivement et de profiter de la hausse des prix des bois de chauffage, ou d'en faire des terrains destinés à l'élevage de leurs bêtes, comme c'est parfois le cas en Angleterre, pendant le mouvement des enclosures. En ce qui concerne les près et les landes, les physiocrates y voient des terres mal utilisées à cause de l'esprit routinier des paysans. Ils demandent donc la clôture et la vente de ces biens. Ce « modèle anglais » ne tient nullement compte des formes d'assolement que permettent ces biens communaux dans le cadre d'une agriculture extensive faisant une grande part à l'élevage bovin. Par ailleurs, il ne faut pas confondre les biens communaux, espace non-approprié, utilisé en commun, et les droits d'usages qui s'appliquent sur des biens privés comme la vaine pâture. En règle générale, « pour la masse des habitants pauvres… [les droits d’usage sur les communaux étaient] des ressources d’un intérêt beaucoup plus grand que la vaine pâture sur les terres arables ». (fr) +, Common land is land owned by a person or collectively by a number of persons, over which other persons have certain common rights, such as to allow their livestock to graze upon it, to collect wood, or to cut turf for fuel. A person who has a right in, or over, common land jointly with another or others is usually called a commoner. In the New Forest, the New Forest Commoner is recognised as a minority cultural identity as well as an agricultural vocation, and members of this community are referred to as Commoners. In Great Britain, common land or former common land is usually referred to as a common; for instance, Clapham Common and Mungrisdale Common. Due to enclosure, the extent of common land is now much reduced from the millions of acres that existed until the 17th century, but a considerable amount of common land still exists, particularly in upland areas. There are over 8,000 registered commons in England alone. (en) +
L’expression biens communs est polysémique. En économie, elle désigne les biens publics impurs, des ressources, matérielles ou non, qui sont rivales et non exclusives, car elles peuvent être dégradées par leur consommation. En référence à la forme historique des biens communaux, la notion de communs renvoie également à une forme de propriété collective et aux mouvements qui cherchent à lutter contre la privatisation de certaines ressources ou enclosures. (fr) +, In economics, a common-pool resource (CPR) is a type of good consisting of a natural or human-made resource system (e.g. an irrigation system or fishing grounds), whose size or characteristics makes it costly, but not impossible, to exclude potential beneficiaries from obtaining benefits from its use. Unlike pure public goods, common pool resources face problems of congestion or overuse, because they are subtractable. A common-pool resource typically consists of a core resource (e.g. water or fish), which defines the stock variable, while providing a limited quantity of extractable fringe units, which defines the flow variable. While the core resource is to be protected or nurtured in order to allow for its continuous exploitation, the fringe units can be harvested or consumed. (en) +
Les biens communs informationnels désignent les ressources informationnelles produites et mises en valeur par une communauté autonome et qui constituent à ce titre des biens communs. Cette notion s'applique notamment, mais pas exclusivement, aux productions éditoriales publiées sous licence libre ou entrées dans le domaine public. Différentes initiatives tentent de réunir ces différents biens communs en un patrimoine informationnel commun, la plus célèbre étant sans doute l'encyclopédie Wikipédia. (fr) +, The term "knowledge commons" refers to information, data, and content that is collectively owned and managed by a community of users, particularly over the Internet. What distinguishes a knowledge commons from a commons of shared physical resources is that digital resources are non-subtractible; that is, multiple users can access the same digital resources with no effect on their quantity or quality. (en) +
En économie, un bien public est un bien non rival ou non excluable. La consommation de ce bien par un agent n'affecte donc pas la quantité disponible pour les autres agents (non-rivalité). Il est impossible d'exclure un agent de l'utilisation de ce bien, même s'il n'a pas participé à son financement. Un bien public pur est un bien non rival et non excluable, il est impossible de faire payer l'accès à ce bien (non-excluabilité). Par exemple, une émission de radio est un bien public. C'est un bien non rival au sens où lorsqu'un agent écoute une émission de radio, il n'empêche aucun autre agent de l'écouter. C'est un bien non excluable au sens où les technologies des ondes radio ne permettent pas de restreindre l'accès à ce bien à ceux qui le financeraient. La notion de bien public mondial (ou ) désigne des biens publics très étendus comme la qualité de l'air, la biodiversité ou la situation climatique mondiale. (fr) +, In economics, a public good (also referred to as a social good or collective good) is a good that is both non-excludable and non-rivalrous. For such goods, users cannot be barred from accessing or using them for failing to pay for them. Also, use by one person neither prevents access of other people nor does it reduce availability to others. Therefore, the good can be used simultaneously by more than one person. This is in contrast to a common good, such as wild fish stocks in the ocean, which is non-excludable but rivalrous to a certain degree. If too many fish were harvested, the stocks would deplete, limiting the access of fish for others. A public good must be valuable to more than one user, otherwise, the fact that it can be used simultaneously by more than one person would be economically irrelevant. Capital goods may be used to produce public goods or services that are "...typically provided on a large scale to many consumers." Unlike other types of economic goods, public goods are described as “non-rivalrous” or “non-exclusive,” and use by one person neither prevents access of other people nor does it reduce availability to others. Similarly, using capital goods to produce public goods may result in the creation of new capital goods. In some cases, public goods or services are considered "...insufficiently profitable to be provided by the private sector.... (and), in the absence of government provision, these goods or services would be produced in relatively small quantities or, perhaps, not at all." Public goods include knowledge, official statistics, national security, common languages, law enforcement, public parks, free roads, television and radio broadcasts. Additionally, flood control systems, lighthouses, and street lighting are also common social goods. Collective goods that are spread all over the face of the earth may be referred to as global public goods. This is not limited to physical book literature, but also media, pictures and videos. For instance, knowledge is well shared globally. Information about men, women and youth health awareness, environmental issues, and maintaining biodiversity is common knowledge that every individual in the society can get without necessarily preventing others access. Also, sharing and interpreting contemporary history with a cultural lexicon, particularly about protected cultural heritage sites and monuments are other sources of knowledge that the people can freely access. Public goods problems are often closely related to the "free-rider" problem, in which people not paying for the good may continue to access it. Thus, the good may be under-produced, overused or degraded. Public goods may also become subject to restrictions on access and may then be considered to be club goods; exclusion mechanisms include toll roads, congestion pricing, and pay television with an encoded signal that can be decrypted only by paid subscribers. There is a good deal of debate and literature on how to measure the significance of public goods problems in an economy, and to identify the best remedies. (en)
La biodiversité désigne la variété des formes de vie sur la Terre. Ce terme est composé du préfixe bio (du grec βίος « vie ») et du mot « diversité ». Elle s'apprécie en considérant la diversité des écosystèmes, des espèces et des gènes dans l'espace et dans le temps, ainsi que les interactions au sein de ces niveaux d'organisation et entre eux. Lorsque la science cherche à évaluer la biodiversité d'un lieu particulier, les différents éléments des listes d'espèces, écosystèmes ou gènes sont pondérés en fonction de leur rareté. Depuis le sommet de la Terre de Rio de Janeiro en 1992, la préservation de la biodiversité est considérée comme un des enjeux essentiels du développement durable. L'adoption de la Convention sur la diversité biologique (CDB) au cours de ce sommet engage les pays signataires à protéger et restaurer la diversité du vivant. Au-delà des raisons éthiques, la biodiversité est essentielle aux sociétés humaines qui en sont entièrement dépendantes à travers les services écosystémiques. 2010 a été l'année internationale de la biodiversité, conclue par la Conférence de Nagoya sur la biodiversité, qui a reconnu l'échec de l'objectif international de stopper la régression de la biodiversité avant 2010, et proposé de nouveaux objectifs (protocole de Nagoya). En 2012, la Plateforme intergouvernementale sur la biodiversité et les services écosystémiques (IPBES), un groupe d'experts intergouvernemental sur le modèle du Groupe d'experts intergouvernemental sur l'évolution du climat (GIEC), a été lancée par le programme des Nations unies pour l'environnement pour conseiller les gouvernements sur cette thématique. En 2019, le nombre d'espèces menacées d'extinction est évalué à un million. (fr) +, Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic (genetic variability), species (species diversity), and ecosystem (ecosystem diversity) level. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth; it is usually greater in the tropics as a result of the warm climate and high primary productivity in the region near the equator. Tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10% of earth's surface and contain about 90% of the world's species. Marine biodiversity is usually higher along coasts in the Western Pacific, where sea surface temperature is highest, and in the mid-latitudinal band in all oceans. There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing through time, but will be likely to slow in the future as a primary result of deforestation. It encompasses the evolutionary, ecological, and cultural processes that sustain life. Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions. More than 99.9% of all species that ever lived on Earth, amounting to over five billion species, are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86% have not yet been described. The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037 and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as four trillion tons of carbon. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth. The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. There are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old meta-sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland. More recently, in 2015, "remains of biotic life" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth...then it could be common in the universe." Since life began on Earth, five major mass extinctions and several minor events have led to large and sudden drops in biodiversity. The Phanerozoic aeon (the last 540 million years) marked a rapid growth in biodiversity via the Cambrian explosion—a period during which the majority of multicellular phyla first appeared. The next 400 million years included repeated, massive biodiversity losses classified as mass extinction events. In the Carboniferous, rainforest collapse led to a great loss of plant and animal life. The Permian–Triassic extinction event, 251 million years ago, was the worst; vertebrate recovery took 30 million years. The most recent, the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, occurred 65 million years ago and has often attracted more attention than others because it resulted in the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs. The period since the emergence of humans has displayed an ongoing biodiversity reduction and an accompanying loss of genetic diversity. Named the Holocene extinction, and often referred to as the sixth mass extinction, the reduction is caused primarily by human impacts, particularly habitat destruction. Conversely, biodiversity positively impacts human health in many ways, although a few negative effects are studied. (en)
Dans le domaine de l'énergie, la biomasse est la matière organique d'origine végétale (microalgues incluses), animale, bactérienne ou fongique (champignons), utilisable comme source d'énergie (bioénergies). Cette énergie peut en être extraite par combustion directe (ex. : bois énergie), ou par combustion après un processus de transformation de la matière première, par exemple la méthanisation (biogaz, ou sa version épurée le biométhane) ou d'autres transformations chimiques (dont la pyrolyse, la carbonisation hydrothermale et les méthodes de production de biocarburants ou « agrocarburants »). Trois modes de valorisations de la biomasse (co)existent : thermique, chimique et biochimique. La biomasse intéresse à nouveau les pays riches, confrontés au changement climatique et à la perspective d'une crise des ressources en hydrocarbures fossiles ou uranium. Sous certaines conditions, elle répond à des enjeux de développement durable et d'économie circulaire ; en se substituant aux énergies fossiles pour réduire les émissions globales de gaz à effet de serre, en restaurant aussi parfois certains puits de carbone (semi-naturels dans le cas des boisements et haies exploités). En quelques décennies des filières nouvelles sont apparues : agrocarburants, granulés de bois, méthanisation industrielle, créant des tensions sur certaines ressources, avec de nouveaux risques de surexploitation de la ressource et de remplacement de cultures vivrières par des cultures énergétiques. En France, une stratégie nationale de mobilisation de la biomasse (2018) vise à augmenter la quantité de biomasse collectée, en créant le moins possible d'effets collatéraux négatifs sur la biodiversité, les paysages et d'autres filières dépendantes de la même ressource. En 2019, selon l'Agence internationale de l'énergie, la biomasse fournissait 56 813 PJ d'énergie, soit 9,2 % de l'énergie primaire consommée dans le monde, 542,6 TWh d'électricité, soit 2,0 % de la production mondiale d'électricité, et 3,3 % de l'énergie consommée par les transports. Selon un rapport de la Commission européenne, la bioénergie pourrait couvrir jusqu'à 13 % de la demande énergétique de l'UE. (fr) , Biomass is plant-based material used as fuel to produce heat or electricity. Examples are wood and wood residues, energy crops, agricultural residues, and waste from industry, farms and households. Since biomass can be used as a fuel directly (e.g. wood logs), some people use the words biomass and biofuel interchangeably. Others subsume one term under the other. Government authorities in the US and the EU define biofuel as a liquid or gaseous fuel, used for transportation. The European Union's Joint Research Centre use the concept solid biofuel and define it as raw or processed organic matter of biological origin used for energy, for instance firewood, wood chips and wood pellets. In 2019, 57 EJ (exajoules) of energy were produced from biomass, compared to 190 EJ from crude oil, 168 EJ from coal, 144 EJ from natural gas, 30 EJ from nuclear, 15 EJ from hydro and 13 EJ from wind, solar and geothermal combined. Approximately 86% of modern bioenergy is used for heating applications, with 9% used for transport and 5% for electricity. Most of the global bioenergy is produced from forest resources. Power plants that use biomass as fuel can produce a stable power output, unlike the intermittent power produced by solar or wind farms. In 2017, the IEA (International Energy Agency) described bioenergy as the most important source of renewable energy. The IEA also argued that the current rate of bioenergy deployment is well below the levels required in future low carbon scenarios, and that accelerated deployment is urgently needed. In IEA's Net Zero by 2050 scenario, traditional bioenergy is phased out by 2030, and modern bioenergy's share of the total energy supply increases from 6.6% in 2020 to 13.1% in 2030 and 18.7% in 2050. In 2014, IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency) projected a doubling of energy produced from biomass in 2030, with a small contribution from traditional bioenergy (6 EJ). The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) argue that bioenergy has a significant climate mitigation potential if done right, and most of the IPCC's mitigation pathways include substantial contributions from bioenergy in 2050 (average at 200 EJ.) Some researchers criticize the use of bioenergy with low emission savings, high initial carbon intensities and/or long waiting times before positive climate impacts materialize. The raw material feedstocks with the largest potential in the future is lignocellulosic (non-edible) biomass (for instance coppices or perennial energy crops), agricultural residues, and biological waste. These feedstocks also have the shortest delay before producing climate benefits. Heat production is normally more "climate friendly" than electricity production, since the conversion from chemical to heat energy is more efficient than the conversion from chemical to electrical energy. Heat from biomass combustion is also harder to replace with heat from alternative renewable energy sources; these are either more costly or constrained by the maximum temperature of the steam they can deliver. Solid biofuel is likely more climate friendly than liquid biofuel, since the production of solid biofuel is more energy efficient. Biogas plants can provide dispatchable electricity generation, and heat when needed. A common concept is the co-fermentation of energy crops mixed with manure in agriculture. Burning plant-derived releases CO2, but it has still been classified as a renewable energy source in the EU and UN legal frameworks because photosynthesis cycles the CO2 back into new crops. How a fuel is produced, transported and processed has a significant impact on lifecycle emissions. Transporting fuels over long distances and excessive use of nitrogen fertilisers can reduce the emissions savings made by the same fuel compared to natural gas by between 15 and 50 per cent. Renewable biofuels are starting to be used in aviation. (en)
A blockchain is a type of distributed ledger technology (DLT) that consists of growing lists of records, called blocks, that are securely linked together using cryptography. Each block contains a cryptographic hash of the previous block, a timestamp, and transaction data (generally represented as a Merkle tree, where data nodes are represented by leaves). The timestamp proves that the transaction data existed when the block was created. Since each block contains information about the previous block, they effectively form a chain (compare linked list data structure), with each additional block linking to the ones before it. Consequently, blockchain transactions are irreversible in that, once they are recorded, the data in any given block cannot be altered retroactively without altering all subsequent blocks. Blockchains are typically managed by a peer-to-peer (P2P) computer network for use as a public distributed ledger, where nodes collectively adhere to a consensus algorithm protocol to add and validate new transaction blocks. Although blockchain records are not unalterable, since blockchain forks are possible, blockchains may be considered secure by design and exemplify a distributed computing system with high Byzantine fault tolerance. A blockchain was created by a person (or group of people) using the name (or pseudonym) Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008 to serve as the public distributed ledger for bitcoin cryptocurrency transactions, based on previous work by Stuart Haber, W. Scott Stornetta, and Dave Bayer. The implementation of the blockchain within bitcoin made it the first digital currency to solve the double-spending problem without the need of a trusted authority or central server. The bitcoin design has inspired other applications and blockchains that are readable by the public and are widely used by cryptocurrencies. The blockchain may be considered a type of payment rail. Private blockchains have been proposed for business use. Computerworld called the marketing of such privatized blockchains without a proper security model "snake oil"; however, others have argued that permissioned blockchains, if carefully designed, may be more decentralized and therefore more secure in practice than permissionless ones. (en)
Une bourse, au sens économique et financier, est une institution, privée ou publique, qui permet de découvrir et d'afficher le prix d'actifs standardisés et d'en faciliter (d'apparier) les échanges dans des conditions de sécurité satisfaisante pour l'acheteur et le vendeur. Une bourse abrite un marché réglementé et organisé dont la présence est permanente, contrairement à un marché (de campagne par exemple) dont la présence est éphémère, mais dont les fonctions sont voisines. Elle s'insère dans une chaîne logistique complexe de passation des ordres, de clearing des ordres et de livraison des titres (ou autres). La bourse est une institution de l'économie de marché, car elle assure la formation continue des prix par confrontation de l'offre et de la demande. Elle est généralement surveillée par un régulateur qui assure sa neutralité de fonctionnement (équité de traitement des investisseurs), la bonne circulation des informations (communiqués) et la police du marché si nécessaire (notifications, enquêtes, sanctions). Les bourses étaient autrefois abritées dans des bâtiments spéciaux destinés à accueillir les opérateurs qui en assuraient le fonctionnement : courtiers, agents de change (aujourd'hui disparus), et autres membres. Ces membres assuraient les cotations à la bourse par divers systèmes de formation des prix tels que criée, casiers ou boites. Les bourses se sont progressivement dématérialisées et ont migré sur des réseaux informatiques qui assurent les mêmes fonctions, sans qu'une présence physique des opérateurs en un même lieu soit nécessaire. Des opérateurs purement logiciels sont apparus dans les dernières décennies. On distingue :
* les bourses des valeurs : actions, obligations, produits dérivés (options, bons de souscription), OPCVM ;
* les bourses de matières premières (métaux, hydrocarbures, céréales, etc.) ou de biens de consommation en gros (diamants, fleurs, etc.). L'or et l'argent ont un statut un peu particulier « compartiment » qui est dû à leur ancienne fonction monétaire ;
* les bourses spécialisées dans les contrats à terme, futures (matière première par exemple pétrole, produits finis, par exemple jus d'orange, produits financiers, par exemple indice boursier), comme le LIFFE. Employé seul dans un contexte financier, le terme « bourse » réfère le plus souvent à une bourse de valeurs, de matières premières ou de produits financiers spécialisés (de type futures). (fr) , An exchange, bourse (/bʊərs/), trading exchange or trading venue is an organized market where (especially) tradable securities, commodities, foreign exchange, futures, and options contracts are bought and sold. (en) +
Un brevet est un titre de propriété industrielle qui confère à son titulaire une exclusivité d'exploitation de l'invention brevetée à compter, en principe, de la date de dépôt et pour une durée maximale de 20 ans. Un droit de brevet n'est pas un droit d'exploitation, c'est-à-dire autorisant l'exploitation de l'invention brevetée. En effet, le droit d’exploitation peut être soumis à un autre formalisme tel que l'obtention d'une autorisation de mise sur le marché, une certification, etc. Certains États peuvent au moment de l'inscription fournir un « brevet provisoire » et accorder un « délai de grâce » qui évite la nullité du brevet pour un inventeur ayant exposé son invention avant le dépôt de brevet, dans un cadre non confidentiel. Ceci présente l'avantage de permettre la diffusion rapide des connaissances techniques tout en réservant l'exploitation industrielle de l'invention, ainsi que quelques inconvénients[Lesquels ?]. Selon les pays c'est le premier « inventeur » ou le premier « déposant » (en Europe) qui a priorité pour le brevet. Le brevet n'est valable que sur un territoire déterminé, pour un État déterminé. Il est possible de déposer une demande de brevet auprès d'un État (auprès de l'USPTO pour les États-Unis, de l'INPI pour la France, du JPO pour le Japon…), ou auprès d'un groupe de pays (auprès de l'Office européen des brevets pour 39 pays européens, dépôt d'une demande internationale de brevet pour les 142 pays signataires du Traité de coopération sur les brevets, dite demande PCT). À la délivrance, le demandeur recevra autant de brevets nationaux que d'États où une protection est recherchée. En contrepartie du droit, pour le titulaire du brevet, d'interdire à autrui de reproduire l'invention sans son autorisation, l'invention doit être divulguée dans le texte du brevet de manière pleine et entière de manière que quiconque puisse la reproduire. Dans la majorité des cas, les demandes de brevet sont automatiquement publiées à l'issue d'une période de 18 mois à compter de la date de priorité revendiquée la plus ancienne. En Europe, des brevets sur des dispositifs médicaux, des produits pharmaceutiques ou phytosanitaires peuvent être prolongés de cinq ans au plus sous réserve de l'obtention d'un certificat complémentaire de protection (règlement CE 1768/92). En décembre 2020, dans le cadre de la pandémie de Covid-19, l'Organisation mondiale du commerce débat exceptionnellement sur la libération des brevets sur les vaccins. (fr) , A patent is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the legal right to exclude others from making, using, or selling an invention for a limited period of time in exchange for publishing an enabling disclosure of the invention. In most countries, patent rights fall under private law and the patent holder must sue someone infringing the patent in order to enforce their rights. In some industries patents are an essential form of competitive advantage; in others they are irrelevant. The procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international agreements. Typically, however, a patent application must include one or more claims that define the scope of protection that is being sought. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property right. Under the World Trade Organization's (WTO) TRIPS Agreement, patents should be available in WTO member states for any invention, in all fields of technology, provided they are new, involve an inventive step, and are capable of industrial application. Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to country, also among WTO member states. TRIPS also provides that the term of protection available should be a minimum of twenty years. (en) +
Pour un agent économique (à savoir un individu, un ménage, une association, une entreprise, un État...) ou une entité (à savoir un équipement, un service, un établissement, un projet, une mission, une fonction...) le budget est un document récapitulatif des recettes et des dépenses prévisionnelles déterminées et chiffrées pour un exercice comptable à venir (généralement l'année). La démarche budgétaire peut concerner le domaine de la gestion privée ou publique. Le présent article ne traite que des concepts et des pratiques ayant trait à la gestion privée (voir par ailleurs les articles détaillés : le Budget de l'État ou le Budget de l'État français ou le Budget de l'Union européenne). (fr) +, A budget is a calculation plan, usually but not always financial, for a defined period, often one year or a month. A budget may include anticipated sales volumes and revenues, resource quantities including time, costs and expenses, environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas emissions, other impacts, assets, liabilities and cash flows. Companies, governments, families, and other organizations use budgets to express strategic plans of activities in measurable terms. A budget expresses intended expenditures along with proposals for how to meet them with resources. A budget may express a surplus, providing resources for use at a future time, or a deficit in which expenditures exceed income or other resources. (en) +
Sumak kawsay is a neologism in Quechua created in the 1990s by socialist-indigenous organizations. Originally created as a political and cultural proposal, Ecuadorian and Bolivian governments later adopted it. The term refers to the implementation of a socialism that moves away from Western socialist theory and instead embraces the ancestral, communitarian knowledge and lifestyle of Quechua people. In Ecuador, it has been translated as buen vivir or "good living", although experts in the Quechua language agree that a more precise translation would be "the plentiful life". In Bolivia, the original word in Aimaran is suma qamaña which has been translated as vivir bien or living well. In the original Quechua phrase, sumak refers to the ideal and beautiful fulfillment of the planet, and kawsay means "life," a life with dignity, plenitude, balance, and harmony. Similar ideas exist in other indigenous communities, such as the Mapuche (Chile), the Guaraní (Bolivia and Paraguay), the Achuar (Ecuadorian Amazon), the Guna (Panamá), etc. Mayan Tsotsil and Tseltal peoples pursue Lekil Kuxlejal (a fair-dignified life), which is considered equivalent to Buen Vivir and has influenced the development Neozapatismo. Since the 1990s, sumak kawsay has grown into a political project that aims to achieve collective wellbeing, social responsibility in how people relate to nature, and a halt to endless capital accumulation. This final aspect makes the project an alternative to traditional development. Buen vivir proposes the collective realization of a harmonious and balanced life based on ethical values, in place of a development model that views human beings as an economic resource. Indigenous movements in Ecuador and Bolivia, along with intellectuals, initially used the concept to define an alternative paradigm to capitalist development with cosmological, holistic, and political dimensions. The 2008 Constitution of Ecuador incorporated the concept of the rights of nature, as did the 2009 Constitution of Bolivia. Diverse theorists, such as economists Alberto Acosta and Magdalena León, say that sumak kawsay is not about a finished and completely structured theory, but rather an unfinished social proposal that can be improved. (en)
, A business improvement district (BID) is a defined area within which businesses are required to pay an additional tax (or levy) in order to fund projects within the district's boundaries. The BID is often funded primarily through the levy but can also draw on other public and private funding streams. BIDs may go by other names, such as business improvement area (BIA), business revitalization zone (BRZ), community improvement district (CID), special services area (SSA), or special improvement district (SID). These districts typically fund services which are perceived by some businesses as being inadequately performed by government with its existing tax revenues, such as cleaning streets, providing security, making capital improvements, construction of pedestrian and streetscape enhancements, and marketing the area. The services provided by BIDs are supplemental to those already provided by the municipality. The revenue derives from a tax assessment on commercial property owners, and in some cases, residential property owners. (en) +
C
Un camp de réfugiés est un camp temporaire construit par des gouvernements ou des ONG (telles que la Croix-Rouge) pour recevoir des réfugiés. C'est un espace humanitaire artificiel, fondé sur un système urbain pour une durée limitée à la suite d'une catastrophe naturelle ou d'une crise politique. Certains camps peuvent accueillir jusqu'à plusieurs milliers de personnes. (fr) +, A refugee camp is a temporary settlement built to receive refugees and people in refugee-like situations. Refugee camps usually accommodate displaced people who have fled their home country, but camps are also made for internally displaced people. Usually, refugees seek asylum after they have escaped war in their home countries, but some camps also house environmental and economic migrants. Camps with over a hundred thousand people are common, but as of 2012, the average-sized camp housed around 11,400. They are usually built and run by a government, the United Nations, international organizations (such as the International Committee of the Red Cross), or non-governmental organization. Unofficial refugee camps, such as Idomeni in Greece or the Calais jungle in France, are where refugees are largely left without support of governments or international organizations. Refugee camps generally develop in an impromptu fashion with the aim of meeting basic human needs for only a short time. Facilities that make a camp look or feel more permanent are often prohibited by host country governments. If the return of refugees is prevented (often by civil war), a humanitarian crisis can result or continue. According to UNHCR, most refugees worldwide do not live in refugee camps. At the end of 2015, some 67% of refugees around the world lived in individual, private accommodations. This can be partly explained by the high number of Syrian refugees renting apartments in urban agglomerations across the Middle East. Worldwide, slightly over a quarter (25.4%) of refugees were reported to be living in managed camps. At the end of 2015, about 56% of the total refugee population in rural locations resided in a managed camp, compared to the 2% who resided in individual accommodation. In urban locations, the overwhelming majority (99%) of refugees lived in individual accommodations, compared with less than 1% who lived in a managed camp. A small percentage of refugees also live in collective centers, transit camps, and self-settled camps. Despite 74% of refugees being in urban areas, the service delivery model of international humanitarian aid agencies remains focused on the establishment and operation of refugee camps. (en)
Empowerment is the degree of autonomy and self-determination in people and in communities. This enables them to represent their interests in a responsible and self-determined way, acting on their own authority. It is the process of becoming stronger and more confident, especially in controlling one's life and claiming one's rights. Empowerment as action refers both to the process of self-empowerment and to professional support of people, which enables them to overcome their sense of powerlessness and lack of influence, and to recognize and use their resources. As a term, empowerment originates from American community psychology and is associated with the social scientist Julian Rappaport (1981). However, the roots of empowerment theory extend further into history and are linked to Marxist sociological theory. These sociological ideas have continued to be developed and refined through Neo-Marxist Theory (also known as Critical Theory). In social work, empowerment forms a practical approach of resource-oriented intervention. In the field of citizenship education and democratic education, empowerment is seen as a tool to increase the responsibility of the citizen. Empowerment is a key concept in the discourse on promoting civic engagement. Empowerment as a concept, which is characterized by a move away from a deficit-oriented towards a more strength-oriented perception, can increasingly be found in management concepts, as well as in the areas of continuing education and self-help. (en) +
Le capitalisme désigne un système économique caractérisé par la propriété privée des moyens de production. Par extension, le terme peut également désigner l'organisation sociale induite par ce système ou un système fondé sur l'accumulation du capital productif guidée par la recherche du profit. Les économistes, les sociologues et les historiens ont adopté des perspectives différentes dans leurs analyses du capitalisme et en ont reconnu diverses formes dans la pratique dont le capitalisme de laissez-faire, l'économie sociale de marché ou le capitalisme d'État. Les différentes formes de capitalisme présentent des degrés variables de marché, de propriété privée, d'obstacles à la libre concurrence et d'implication de l'État à travers les politiques sociales et sont du ressort des politiques et de la loi. La plupart des économies capitalistes existantes sont des économies mixtes, qui combinent des éléments de libre marché avec l'intervention de l'État et, dans certains cas, la planification économique. Le système capitaliste a connu une diffusion croissante depuis la révolution industrielle et est actuellement le système économique de la plupart des pays de la planète suite à l'échec du modèle marxiste avec la chute du Mur de Berlin. Il lui est fait de nombreuses critiques concernant notamment la morale, la validité des théories économiques, le rôle de l'État, le pouvoir du capitaliste, le partage de la valeur ajoutée et du profit, l'organisation du travail ou encore les relations internationales. En outre, l'implication du capitalisme dans de grandes questions sociétales, comme l'impérialisme ou les dégâts fait à l'environnement, font l'objet de controverses. Pour cette raison, le mot capitalisme est généralement employé avec une connotation critique ou une volonté de s'opposer à ce système, notamment par les tenants du marxisme et de l'anarchisme. (fr) +, Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price system, private property, property rights recognition, voluntary exchange, and wage labor. In a market economy, decision-making and investments are determined by owners of wealth, property, or ability to maneuver capital or production ability in capital and financial markets—whereas prices and the distribution of goods and services are mainly determined by competition in goods and services markets. Economists, historians, political economists and sociologists have adopted different perspectives in their analyses of capitalism and have recognized various forms of it in practice. These include laissez-faire or free-market capitalism, anarcho-capitalism, state capitalism and welfare capitalism. Different forms of capitalism feature varying degrees of free markets, public ownership, obstacles to free competition and state-sanctioned social policies. The degree of competition in markets and the role of intervention and regulation as well as the scope of state ownership vary across different models of capitalism. The extent to which different markets are free and the rules defining private property are matters of politics and policy. Most of the existing capitalist economies are mixed economies that combine elements of free markets with state intervention and in some cases economic planning. Market economies have existed under many forms of government and in many different times, places and cultures. Modern capitalist societies developed in Western Europe in a process that led to the Industrial Revolution. Capitalist systems with varying degrees of direct government intervention have since become dominant in the Western world and continue to spread. Economic growth is a characteristic tendency of capitalist economies. (en) +
Les capitaux propres, très proches des fonds propres, sont, en comptabilité, les ressources (passif) d'une société qui appartiennent à ses actionnaires, par opposition aux dettes vis-à-vis des fournisseurs ou des banques par exemple. Ils se composent du capital social, des réserves et du report à nouveau (correspondant aux bénéfices qui n'ont pas été redistribués en dividende), et du résultat net de l'exercice fiscal. Les fonds propres sont un peu plus larges que les capitaux propres puisque : fonds propres = capitaux propres + émissions de titres participatifs + avances conditionnées + droits du concédant. Il est vrai toutefois que pour la plupart des entreprises, les capitaux propres ont une valeur très proche des fonds propres. Cette notion est parfois étendue aux « quasi-fonds propres », qui regroupent des ressources stables n'ayant pas le caractère de capitaux propres, telles que les comptes courants d'associés, les emprunts participatifs ou les obligations convertibles. (fr) +, In finance, equity is ownership of assets that may have debts or other liabilities attached to them. Equity is measured for accounting purposes by subtracting liabilities from the value of the assets. For example, if someone owns a car worth $24,000 and owes $10,000 on the loan used to buy the car, the difference of $14,000 is equity. Equity can apply to a single asset, such as a car or house, or to an entire business. A business that needs to start up or expand its operations can sell its equity in order to raise cash that does not have to be repaid on a set schedule. When liabilities attached to an asset exceed its value, the difference is called a deficit and the asset is informally said to be "underwater" or "upside-down". In government finance or other non-profit settings, equity is known as "net position" or "net assets". (en) +
La cartographie est la réalisation et l'étude des cartes géographiques et géologiques. Elle est très dépendante de la géodésie, science qui s'efforce de décrire, mesurer et rendre compte de la forme et des dimensions de la Terre. Le principe majeur de la cartographie est la représentation de données sur un support réduit représentant un espace généralement tenu pour réel. L'objectif de la carte, c'est une représentation concise et efficace, la simplification de phénomènes complexes (politiques, économiques, sociaux, etc.) à l'œuvre sur l'espace représenté afin de permettre une compréhension rapide et pertinente. La création de carte débute avec la définition du projet cartographique. La collecte d'informations est en deux parties : 1.
* fond de carte : relevé des contours et de l'espace support à représenter ; 2.
* relevé des données statistiques à représenter sur cet espace. Vient ensuite un travail de sélection des informations, de conception graphique (icônes, styles), puis d'assemblage (création de la carte), et de renseignement de la carte (légende, échelle, rose des vents). La création cartographique est également étudiée, ses méthodes commentées. Des analyses mathématiques comparent par exemple les distorsions des projections cartographiques, tandis que les théories de l'information graphique donnent des conseils quant au style nécessaire à un message graphique clair. Étant le fruit de sélections humaines, la carte peut omettre, nier, tromper. L' des cartes est ici intéressante, puisqu'elle révèle les biais.Les acteurs principaux de la cartographie étaient traditionnellement les explorateurs et les cartographes, afin de définir l'espace des États, et les espaces des territoires explorés. Aujourd'hui, la cartographie moderne est transdisciplinaire et s'applique à quantité de sciences : la géologie pour les géologues, la biologie pour les biologistes, l'urbanisme pour les architectes, la sociologie pour les sociologues… nécessitent une collaboration entre cartographes, experts, et analystes de données. Les données numériques et satellitaires font de l'informatique et de l'informaticien de nouveaux partenaires-clefs, tandis que les netizens rejoignent depuis peu le groupe avec la et la cartographie d'information. Au XXIe siècle, rares sont les cartographes « purs ». Effectivement, la géographie et l'informatique sont couplées : cet ensemble forme la géomatique. Les géomaticiens sont des professionnels capables de réaliser de la cartographie mais aussi de gérer des systèmes d'information (données, bases de données, architectures informatiques…), spécifiquement appelés des SIG. (fr) , Cartography (/kɑːrˈtɒɡrəfi/; from Ancient Greek: χάρτης chartēs, "papyrus, sheet of paper, map"; and γράφειν graphein, "write") is the study and practice of making and using maps. Combining science, aesthetics and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality (or an imagined reality) can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively. The fundamental objectives of traditional cartography are to:
* Set the map's agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing. Traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as toponyms or political boundaries.
* Represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections.
* Eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the map's purpose. This is the concern of generalization.
* Reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization.
* Orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of . Modern cartography constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems (GIS) and geographic information science (GISc). (en) +
, In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The current rise in global average temperature is more rapid than previous changes, and is primarily caused by humans burning fossil fuels. Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices increase greenhouse gases, notably carbon dioxide and methane. Greenhouse gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight. Larger amounts of these gases trap more heat in Earth's lower atmosphere, causing global warming. Due to climate change, deserts are expanding, while heat waves and wildfires are becoming more common. Increased warming in the Arctic has contributed to melting permafrost, glacial retreat and sea ice loss. Higher temperatures are also causing more intense storms, droughts, and other weather extremes. Rapid environmental change in mountains, coral reefs, and the Arctic is forcing many species to relocate or become extinct. Even if efforts to minimise future warming are successful, some effects will continue for centuries. These include ocean heating, ocean acidification and sea level rise. Climate change threatens people with food and water scarcity, increased flooding, extreme heat, more disease, and economic loss. Human migration and conflict can also be a result. The World Health Organization (WHO) calls climate change the greatest threat to global health in the 21st century. Communities may adapt to climate change through efforts like coastline protection or expanding access to air conditioning, but some impacts are unavoidable. Poorer countries are responsible for a small share of global emissions, yet they have the least ability to adapt and are most vulnerable to climate change. Many climate change impacts are already felt at the current 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) level of warming. Additional warming will increase these impacts and may trigger tipping points, such as the melting of the Greenland ice sheet. Under the 2015 Paris Agreement, nations collectively agreed to keep warming "well under 2 °C". However, with pledges made under the Agreement, global warming would still reach about 2.7 °C (4.9 °F) by the end of the century. Limiting warming to 1.5 °C will require halving emissions by 2030 and achieving net-zero emissions by 2050. Reducing emissions requires generating electricity from low-carbon sources rather than burning fossil fuels. This change includes phasing out coal and natural gas fired power plants, vastly increasing use of wind, solar, and other types of renewable energy, and reducing energy use. Electricity generated from non-carbon-emitting sources will need to replace fossil fuels for powering transportation, heating buildings, and operating industrial facilities. Carbon can also be removed from the atmosphere, for instance by increasing forest cover and by farming with methods that capture carbon in soil. (en)
Les chartes sont des actes juridiques signés par plusieurs acteurs pour définir un objectif et parfois des moyens communs. Les chartes sont de natures variées :
* les chartes royales, par exemple la Grande Charte de Jean sans Terre en 1215, ou la Charte constitutionnelle de 1814 ;
* les chartes de franchise ;
* les chartes de commune. Il existe des chartes :
* de qualité de produit ou de service, de respect des délais
* des chartes concernant les pratiques professionnelles des personnels soignant ou accompagnant des personnes vulnérables (enfants, handicapés, personnes âgées, malades hospitalisés) Les chartes de fondation précisent les conditions de création d'un bâtiment civil (palais par exemple), militaire ou religieux (abbaye par exemple), d'une ville (bastide par exemple), d'une société ou d'une association. (fr) +, A charter is the grant of authority or rights, stating that the granter formally recognizes the prerogative of the recipient to exercise the rights specified. It is implicit that the granter retains superiority (or sovereignty), and that the recipient admits a limited (or inferior) status within the relationship, and it is within that sense that charters were historically granted, and it is that sense which is retained in modern usage of the term. The word entered the English language from the Old French charte, via Latin charta, and ultimately from Greek χάρτης (khartes, meaning "layer of papyrus"). It has come to be synonymous with a document that sets out a grant of rights or privileges. (en) +
La citoyenneté est le fait pour un individu, pour une famille ou pour un groupe, d'être reconnu officiellement comme citoyen, c'est-à-dire membre d'une ville ayant le statut de cité, ou plus générale d'un État. En France en 1789, le mot citoyen a remplacé celui de bourgeois. Il n'y a pas de citoyenneté en général, même si beaucoup de personnalités se sont revendiquées comme citoyens du monde ou cosmopolites. (fr) +, Citizenship is a "relationship between an individual and a state to which the individual owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection". Each state determines the conditions under which it will recognize persons as its citizens, and the conditions under which that status will be withdrawn. Recognition by a state as a citizen generally carries with it recognition of civil, political, and social rights which are not afforded to non-citizens. In general, the basic rights normally regarded as arising from citizenship are the right to a passport, the right to leave and return to the country/ies of citizenship, the right to live in that country, and to work there. Some countries permit their citizens to have multiple citizenships, while others insist on exclusive allegiance. (en) +
Le climat est la distribution statistique des conditions de l'atmosphère terrestre dans une région donnée pendant une période donnée. L'étude du climat est la climatologie. Elle se distingue de la météorologie qui désigne l'étude du temps à court terme et dans des zones ponctuelles. La caractérisation du climat est effectuée à partir de mesures statistiques annuelles et mensuelles sur des données atmosphériques locales : température, pression atmosphérique, précipitations, ensoleillement, humidité, vitesse du vent. Sont également pris en compte leur récurrence ainsi que les phénomènes exceptionnels. Ces analyses permettent de classer les climats des différentes régions du monde selon leurs caractéristiques principales. Le climat a fortement varié au cours de l'histoire de la Terre sous l'influence d’une pluralité de phénomènes astronomiques, géologiques, etc., et plus récemment sous l'effet des activités humaines (réchauffement climatique). (fr) +, Climate is the long-term weather pattern in an area, typically averaged over 30 years. More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation. In a broader sense, climate is the state of the components of the climate system, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere and the interactions between them. The climate of a location is affected by its latitude/longitude, terrain, altitude, land use and nearby water bodies and their currents. Climates can be classified according to the average and typical variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. The most widely used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification. The Thornthwaite system, in use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it. Finally, the Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region. Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates. Paleoclimatologists seek to explain climate variations for all parts of the Earth during any given geologic period, beginning with the time of the Earth's formation. Since very few direct observations of climate were available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables. They include non-biotic evidence—such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores—and biotic evidence—such as tree rings and coral. Climate models are mathematical models of past, present, and future climates. Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from various factors. Recent warming is discussed in global warming, which results in redistributions. For example, "a 3 °C [5 °F] change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300–400 km [190–250 mi] in latitude (in the temperate zone) or 500 m [1,600 ft] in elevation. Therefore, species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones." (en)
La cocréation est une pratique collaborative de développement d'une initiative. Elle met l'accent sur l'exploration et l'interdisciplinarité, implique de nouvelles relations entre une diversité de personnes et utilise un processus créatif pour générer des résultats significatifs. La cocréation consiste, pour une entreprise, à développer des produits ou services en collaboration active avec ses clients et ce, de façon durable. Après une première phase durant laquelle la cocréation a été utilisée comme un outil d’innovation pour les produits et les services, la cocréation se développe aujourd’hui comme vecteur de transformation des entreprises. La cocréation de produit ou service avec le client arrive au deuxième rang des priorités des dirigeants marketing pour la période 2010-2012 selon le baromètre Cegos. (fr) +
Une coopérative est la combinaison d'un regroupement de personnes et d'une entreprise fondée sur la participation économique des membres, en capital et en opérations. Son organisation et son fonctionnement sont caractérisés par des principes et des valeurs qui confèrent à chaque coopérative un caractère universel, quel que soit son objet ou son secteur d'activité. Une partie de ces principes et valeurs, comme la démocratie à travers l'égalité de voix entre les membres, est traduite en norme juridique. L'identité coopérative s'identifie par sept principes de coopération. Ainsi, pour les prises de décision, elle repose sur le principe démocratique « une personne = une voix » qui devra élire un conseil d'administration qui nommera un directeur général. Les salariés et les membres-usagers sont ainsi tous égaux en droit. (fr) +, A cooperative (also known as co-operative, co-op, or coop) is "an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically-controlled enterprise". Cooperatives are democratically controlled by their members, with each member having one vote in electing the board of directors.Cooperatives may include:
* businesses owned and managed by the people who consume their goods and/or services (a consumer cooperative)
* businesses where producers pool their output for their common benefit (a producer cooperative)
* organizations managed by the people who work there (a worker cooperative)
* businesses where members pool their purchasing power (a purchasing cooperative)
* multi-stakeholder or hybrid cooperatives that share ownership between different stakeholder groups. For example, care cooperatives where ownership is shared between both care-givers and receivers. Stakeholders might also include non-profits or investors.
* second- and third-tier cooperatives whose members are other cooperatives
* platform cooperatives that use a cooperatively owned and governed website, mobile app or a protocol to facilitate the sale of goods and services. Research published by the Worldwatch Institute found that in 2012 approximately one billion people in 96 countries had become members of at least one cooperative. The turnover of the largest three hundred cooperatives in the world reached $2.2 trillion. Cooperative businesses are typically more productive and economically resilient than many other forms of enterprise, with twice the number of co-operatives (80%) surviving their first five years compared with other business ownership models (41%) according to data from United Kingdom. The largest worker owned cooperative in the world, the Mondragon Corporation (founded by Catholic priest José María Arizmendiarrieta), has been in continuous operation since 1956. Cooperatives frequently have social goals, which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6.9% of their pre-tax profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2.4% for other rival supermarkets. Since 2002, cooperatives have been distinguishable on the Internet through the use of a .coop domain. In 2014, the International Co-operative Alliance (ICA) introduced the Cooperative Marque, meaning ICA cooperatives and WOCCU credit unions can also be identified through a coop ethical consumerism label. (en)
La collaboration est l'acte de travailler ou de réfléchir ensemble pour atteindre un objectif. Dans son sens commun, la collaboration est un processus par lequel deux ou plusieurs personnes ou organisations s’associent pour effectuer un travail intellectuel suivant des objectifs communs. Des méthodes structurées de collaboration encouragent l'introspection de comportements et communication. Ces méthodes ont pour objectif spécifique l'augmentation du taux de réussite des équipes quand elles se livrent à la résolution de problèmes en collaboration. Des schémas, rubriques et graphiques sont utiles afin de documenter objectivement les traits de personnalité afin d'améliorer les résultats des projets actuels et à venir. (fr) +, Collaboration (from Latin com- "with" + laborare "to labor", "to work") is the process of two or more people, entities or organizations working together to complete a task or achieve a goal. Collaboration is similar to cooperation. Most collaboration requires leadership, although the form of leadership can be social within a decentralized and egalitarian group. Teams that work collaboratively often access greater resources, recognition and rewards when facing competition for finite resources. Structured methods of collaboration encourage introspection of behavior and communication. Such methods aim to increase the success of teams as they engage in collaborative problem-solving. Collaboration is present in opposing goals exhibiting the notion of adversarial collaboration, though this is not a common use of the term. In its applied sense, "(a) collaboration is a purposeful relationship in which all parties strategically choose to cooperate in order to accomplish a shared outcome." (en) +
A collective is a group of entities that share or are motivated by at least one common issue or interest, or work together to achieve a common objective. Collectives can differ from cooperatives in that they are not necessarily focused upon an economic benefit or saving, but can be that as well. The term "collective" is sometimes used to describe a species as a whole—for example, the human collective. For political purposes, a collective is defined by decentralized, or "majority-rules" decision making styles. (en) +
Collective action refers to action taken together by a group of people whose goal is to enhance their condition and achieve a common objective. It is a term that has formulations and theories in many areas of the social sciences including psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science and economics. (en) +
A commoner, also known as the common man, commoners, the common people or the masses, was in earlier use an ordinary person in a community or nation who did not have any significant social status, especially a member of neither royalty, nobility, nor any part of the aristocracy. Depending on culture and period, other elevated persons (such members of clergy) may have had higher social status in their own right, or were regarded as commoners if lacking an aristocratic background. This class overlaps with the legal class of people who have a property interest in common land, a longstanding feature of land law in England and Wales. Commoners who have rights for a particular common are typically neighbors, not the public in general. (en) +
The commons is the cultural and natural resources accessible to all members of a society, including natural materials such as air, water, and a habitable Earth. These resources are held in common even when owned privately or publicly. Commons can also be understood as natural resources that groups of people (communities, user groups) manage for individual and collective benefit. Characteristically, this involves a variety of informal norms and values (social practice) employed for a governance mechanism.Commons can also be defined as a social practice of governing a resource not by state or market but by a community of users that self-governs the resource through institutions that it creates. (en) +
Le communalisme désigne une forme d'organisation politique reposant sur une fédération de communes administrées dans le cadre de la démocratie directe. Dans son acception moderne, il fait essentiellement référence à l'organisation politique alternative au régime parlementaire proposée pour la France par les communes insurrectionnelles françaises en 1870-1871. (fr) +,
Une communauté est un groupe humain dont les membres sont unis par un lien social. En biologie une communauté représente un système au sein duquel des organismes vivants partagent un environnement commun et interagissent. La notion de communauté est également un concept du droit qui désigne un groupe de personnes possédant et jouissant de façon indivise d'un patrimoine en commun. En France, s'oppose traditionnellement à celui de société et d'association qui reposent sur un pacte ou une convention volontairement formée par ses membres. Par extension, la communauté désigne uniquement les biens qui sont communs à plusieurs personnes. Dans son usage politique actuel le plus courant, le mot communauté évoque des collectivités historiques ou culturelles. En France, le terme est souvent utilisé dans les débats sur les minorités ou le communautarisme, avec une connotation négative. Au Québec, l'expression de communauté culturelle est couramment utilisée sans connotation négative. (fr) +, A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as place, norms, religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a country, village, town, or neighbourhood) or in virtual space through communication platforms. Durable good relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties also define a sense of community, important to their identity, practice, and roles in social institutions such as family, home, work, government, society, or humanity at large. Although communities are usually small relative to personal social ties, "community" may also refer to large group affiliations such as national communities, international communities, and virtual communities. The English-language word "community" derives from the Old French comuneté (Modern French: communauté), which comes from the Latin communitas "community", "public spirit" (from Latin communis, "common"). Human communities may have intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, and risks in common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness. (en) +
Les biens communaux sont l'ensemble des biens appartenant à un seigneur et utilisé en commun par les habitants d'une communauté rurale. En général, ce sont des bois, des prés, des landes et des marais. La plupart de ces biens appartiennent à un seigneur qui en a concédé l'usage soit à titre gratuit, soit en échange de corvée soit en échange d'un cens. À partir du XVIIe siècle, les seigneurs essayent de reprendre ces terrains, surtout lorsqu'ils sont boisés, en obtenant des triages ou des cantonnements, afin de les exploiter plus intensivement et de profiter de la hausse des prix des bois de chauffage, ou d'en faire des terrains destinés à l'élevage de leurs bêtes, comme c'est parfois le cas en Angleterre, pendant le mouvement des enclosures. En ce qui concerne les près et les landes, les physiocrates y voient des terres mal utilisées à cause de l'esprit routinier des paysans. Ils demandent donc la clôture et la vente de ces biens. Ce « modèle anglais » ne tient nullement compte des formes d'assolement que permettent ces biens communaux dans le cadre d'une agriculture extensive faisant une grande part à l'élevage bovin. Par ailleurs, il ne faut pas confondre les biens communaux, espace non-approprié, utilisé en commun, et les droits d'usages qui s'appliquent sur des biens privés comme la vaine pâture. En règle générale, « pour la masse des habitants pauvres… [les droits d’usage sur les communaux étaient] des ressources d’un intérêt beaucoup plus grand que la vaine pâture sur les terres arables ». (fr) +, Common land is land owned by a person or collectively by a number of persons, over which other persons have certain common rights, such as to allow their livestock to graze upon it, to collect wood, or to cut turf for fuel. A person who has a right in, or over, common land jointly with another or others is usually called a commoner. In the New Forest, the New Forest Commoner is recognised as a minority cultural identity as well as an agricultural vocation, and members of this community are referred to as Commoners. In Great Britain, common land or former common land is usually referred to as a common; for instance, Clapham Common and Mungrisdale Common. Due to enclosure, the extent of common land is now much reduced from the millions of acres that existed until the 17th century, but a considerable amount of common land still exists, particularly in upland areas. There are over 8,000 registered commons in England alone. (en) +
Dans certains pays, une commune est une circonscription territoriale pouvant correspondre à une ville, à un bourg avec ses villages et hameaux ou à un groupe de villages. Dans la plupart des cas, la commune constitue la plus petite subdivision administrative. Elle est souvent dirigée par un maire ou bourgmestre. (fr) +,
La communication de masse est l'ensemble des techniques qui permettent de mettre à la disposition d'un vaste public toutes sortes de messages. Selon le théoricien canadien de la communication Marshall McLuhan, elle concentre l'ensemble des techniques susceptibles de créer des prolongements du corps humain à l'ordinateur. Il induit dans sa définition le fait que la « masse » est indifférenciée et dominatrice. Un média de masse est caractérisé par son processus de diffusion ainsi que par l'essor de l'opinion publique moderne qu'il a permis. Les principaux moyens de communication de masse sont la presse, l'affiche, le cinéma, la radiodiffusion et la télévision. Ce sont les mass média dont le terme est formé par les anglo-saxons (en latin media signifie moyens et mass désigne la grande quantité).La communication de masse est publique, rapide et éphémère. Publique, car les messages ciblent une masse d'individus conscients de la nature publique des messages en question. Rapide, car ces derniers ont pour but d'atteindre le plus rapidement possible le plus grand nombre de personnes. Ephémère, car le contenu des messages est destiné à une consommation immédiate souvent de l'ordre du sensationnel. On peut considérer que cette communication débute vers la fin du XIXe siècle avec le développement de la presse. C'est la période durant laquelle apparaît la réclame.Les progrès techniques permettent de diffuser de la culture au peuple et la communication de masse jouit de cette bonne réputation jusqu'à la fin des années 1930.La montée des totalitarismes remet en question cette confiance ; rapidement, la communication de masse devient indissociable de la propagande. Son aboutissement est la standardisation des émetteurs, des récepteurs ainsi que du produit culturel. On simplifie la culture :Il faut des œuvres accessibles pour le peuple, on cherche le plus petit dénominateur commun.Les démocrates veulent croire à un enrichissement de la culture commune aux citoyens quand les régimes totalitaires recherchent une adhésion au chef.Aujourd'hui, dans une société où les premiers cercles de sociabilité, qu'on trouvait avant dans la famille et la paroisse, sont largement moins sollicités, l'importance d'inventer de nouveaux médias pour créer d'autres liens sociaux se fait d'autant plus ressentir. La fin première de la communication étant d'organiser un espace social de consensus. (fr) , Mass communication is the process of imparting and exchanging information through mass media to large segments of the population. It is usually understood for relating to various forms of media, as its technologies are used for the dissemination of information, of which journalism and advertising are part. Mass communication differs from other types of communication, such as interpersonal communication and organizational communication, because it focuses on particular resources transmitting information to numerous receivers. The study of mass communication is chiefly concerned with how the content of mass communication persuades or otherwise affects the behavior, the attitude, opinion, or emotion of the people receiving the information. Normally, transmission of messages to many recipients at a time is called mass communication. But in a complete sense, mass communication can be understood as the process of extensive circulation of information within regions and across the globe. Through mass communication, information can be transmitted quickly to many people who generally stay far away from the sources of information. Mass communication is practiced multiple mediums, such as radio, television, social networking, billboards, newspapers, magazines, books, film, and the Internet. In this modern era, mass communication is being used to disperse information at an accelerated rate, often about politics and other charged topics. There are major connections between the media that is being consumed, via mass communication, and our culture, contributing to polarization and dividing people based on consequential issues. (en) +
La transmission sans fil est un mode de communication à distance utilisant des ondes électromagnétiques modulées comme vecteur. Avec celles-ci, les distances peuvent être courtes — quelques mètres pour le Bluetooth —, voire correspondre à des millions de kilomètres pour le réseau de communications avec l'espace lointain de la NASA. Les applications les plus courantes de la transmission sans fil incluent les téléphones portables, les GPS, les souris et les claviers d’ordinateur, les réseaux informatiques étendus (les WAN), les casques audio, les récepteurs radio et la télévision par satellite. Dans certaines gammes de fréquences (micro-ondes et radiofréquences faisant partie des rayonnements non ionisants, leurs effets biologiques et environnementaux, à certaines fréquences et intensités sont très discutés, en raison des résultats contradictoires de nombreuses études entreprises en lien avec le développement des communications sans fil et de la 5G).[pas clair] (fr) +, Wireless communication (or just wireless, when the context allows) is the transfer of information between two or more points without the use of an electrical conductor, optical fiber or other continuous guided medium for the transfer. The most common wireless technologies use radio waves. With radio waves, intended distances can be short, such as a few meters for Bluetooth or as far as millions of kilometers for deep-space radio communications. It encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable applications, including two-way radios, cellular telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and wireless networking. Other examples of applications of radio wireless technology include GPS units, garage door openers, wireless computer mouse, keyboards and headsets, headphones, radio receivers, satellite television, broadcast television and cordless telephones. Somewhat less common methods of achieving wireless communications involve other electromagnetic phenomena, such as light and magnetic or electric fields, or the use of sound. The term wireless has been used twice in communications history, with slightly different meaning. It was initially used from about 1890 for the first radio transmitting and receiving technology, as in wireless telegraphy, until the new word radio replaced it around 1920. Radio sets in the UK and the English-speaking world that were not portable continued to be referred to as wireless sets into the 1960s. The term wireless was revived in the 1980s and 1990s mainly to distinguish digital devices that communicate without wires, such as the examples listed in the previous paragraph, from those that require wires or cables. This became its primary usage in the 2000s, due to the advent of technologies such as mobile broadband, Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. Wireless operations permit services, such as mobile and interplanetary communications, that are impossible or impractical to implement with the use of wires. The term is commonly used in the telecommunications industry to refer to telecommunications systems (e.g. radio transmitters and receivers, remote controls, etc.) which use some form of energy (e.g. radio waves and acoustic energy) to transfer information without the use of wires. Information is transferred in this manner over both short and long distances. (en)
Le communisme (du latin communis – commun, universel) est initialement un ensemble de doctrines politiques, issues du socialisme et, pour la plupart, du marxisme, s'opposant au capitalisme et visant à l'instauration d'une société sans classes sociales, sans salariat et une mise en place d'une totale socialisation économique et démocratique des moyens de production. Plus spécialement, ce terme est associé au mouvement communiste international né après la Première Guerre mondiale, fruit d'une scission de la IIe Internationale provoquée par les bolcheviks. Il renvoie également, dans le contexte de la guerre froide, à une alliance géopolitique (Bloc communiste) dominée par l'Union soviétique, ainsi qu'à une forme de régime politique, dictatorial ou totalitaire, caractérisé par la position exclusive du Parti communiste, la surveillance et la pression constante des polices politiques sur toutes les structures institutionnelles, sociales et économiques ainsi que sur les simples citoyens ainsi que par une économie planifiée instituée par la collectivisation. Dans son sens d'origine, le communisme est une forme d'organisation sociale sans classes, sans État et sans monnaie, où les biens matériels seraient partagés. Au XIXe siècle, le mot « communisme » entre dans le vocabulaire du socialisme. Il se rattache en particulier à l'œuvre de Karl Marx et Friedrich Engels — qui le reprennent à leur compte en 1848 dans le Manifeste du parti communiste — et, plus largement, à l'école de pensée marxiste, qui prône la fin du capitalisme via la collectivisation des moyens de production. En 1917, les bolcheviks, dirigés par Lénine, prennent le pouvoir en Russie lors de la révolution d'Octobre. Cet évènement change radicalement le sens du mot communisme : il désigne désormais un mouvement politique international, né d'une scission du socialisme, et qui se reconnaît dans le courant révolutionnaire incarné par les bolcheviks comme dans l'interprétation du marxisme par Lénine. Le communisme se présente désormais comme la véritable expression politique du mouvement ouvrier, au détriment de la social-démocratie dont il est issu. Selon cette acception, le communisme constitue l'un des phénomènes les plus importants du XXe siècle, qui a pu être qualifié de « siècle du communisme » tant cette idéologie y a tenu un rôle moteur. Lénine et ses partisans créent en 1919 l'Internationale communiste (dite Troisième Internationale, ou Komintern) afin de regrouper à l'échelle internationale les partisans de la Russie soviétique. L'Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques (URSS), fondée en 1922 pour fédérer les territoires de l'ex-Empire russe, dirige via le Komintern les activités des partis communistes du monde entier : elle domine ainsi la mouvance communiste, malgré l'existence de courants dissidents. Après la mort de Lénine, Joseph Staline s'impose comme le maître absolu de l'URSS. En 1941, durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, l'URSS est attaquée par l'Allemagne nazie, avec laquelle elle avait conclu un pacte deux ans plus tôt. Les troupes soviétiques jouent alors un rôle déterminant dans la défaite du nazisme. Après-guerre, l'URSS accède au rang de superpuissance : elle occupe militairement l'essentiel de l'Europe de l'Est, dont les pays deviennent des États communistes, formant le bloc de l'Est. La Chine bascule également dans le camp communiste en 1949. Le Rideau de fer qui sépare l'Europe et la progression spectaculaire du communisme amènent le monde à se diviser en « blocs » rivaux : la guerre froide oppose ainsi durant plusieurs décennies les pays communistes au « monde libre », au sein duquel les États-Unis constituent la superpuissance rivale de l'URSS. La Chine de Mao occupe quant à elle une place à part après la rupture sino-soviétique. À l'apogée de l'influence du communisme dans le monde, un quart de l'humanité vit dans des pays communistes. Dans les années 1980, l'URSS tente de remédier à ses difficultés économiques et politiques en lançant un mouvement de réformes, la perestroïka : mais ce processus aboutit à l'effondrement général des régimes communistes européens entre 1989 et 1991. Par la suite, bien qu'en net déclin, le communisme ne disparaît pas : si des partis anciennement communistes ont adopté d'autres identités, d'autres ont conservé leur nom et sont associés au pouvoir dans certains pays. À Cuba, au Viêt Nam, au Laos et en Corée du Nord, des pays communistes existent encore, sans se conformer à un mode de gouvernement unique. La république populaire de Chine, pays le plus peuplé de la planète, est toujours dirigée par un Parti communiste ; convertie à l'économie de marché, elle est aujourd'hui l'une des principales puissances mondiales. En tant que dictatures à parti unique, les régimes se réclamant du communisme se sont tous rendus coupables de violations des droits de l'homme ; certains, comme l'URSS sous Staline et la Chine sous Mao, ont commis des crimes de masse, le nombre de leurs victimes s'élevant à plusieurs millions de morts. Le bilan historique du communisme, qui englobe un ensemble de réalités très différentes les unes des autres, demeure cependant, du fait même de sa complexité, contrasté et polémique. Le communisme a fait l'objet de diverses approches historiographiques concurrentes, longtemps handicapées par la difficulté d'accès aux documents et par les contextes politiques nationaux et internationaux. La fin de la guerre froide et l'ouverture des archives du bloc de l'Est ont depuis bouleversé le champ des études sur le communisme, sans mettre fin à toutes les controverses autour du sujet. (fr) , Communism (from Latin communis, 'common, universal') is a far-left sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology and current within the socialist movement whose goal is the establishment of a communist society, a socioeconomic order centered around common ownership of the means of production, distribution, and exchange which allocates products to everyone in the society. Communist society also involves the absence of private property, social classes, money, and the state. Communists often seek a voluntary state of self-governance, but disagree on the means to this end. This reflects a distinction between a more libertarian approach of communization, revolutionary spontaneity, and workers' self-management, and a more vanguardist or communist party-driven approach through the development of a constitutional socialist state followed by the withering away of the state. Variants of communism have been developed throughout history, including anarcho-communism and Marxist schools of thought, among others. Communism includes a variety of schools of thought which broadly include Marxism, Leninism, and libertarian communism as well as the political ideologies grouped around both. All of these different ideologies share the analysis that the current order of society stems from capitalism, its economic system and mode of production, that in this system there are two major social classes, that the relationship between these two classes is exploitative, and that this situation can only ultimately be resolved through a social revolution. The two classes are the proletariat (the working class), who make up the majority of the population within society and must sell their labor to survive, and the bourgeoisie (the capitalist class), a small minority that derives profit from employing the working class through private ownership of the means of production. According to this analysis, a communist revolution would put the working class in power and in turn, establish common ownership of property, which is the primary element in the transformation of society towards a communist mode of production. Communism in its modern form grew out of the socialist movement in 19th-century Europe, who blamed capitalism for the misery of urban factory workers. In the 20th century, several ostensibly Communist governments espousing Marxism–Leninism and its variants came into power, first in the Soviet Union with the Russian Revolution of 1917, and then in portions of Eastern Europe, Asia, and a few other regions after World War II. Along with social democracy, communism became the dominant political tendency within the international socialist movement by the early 1920s. During most of the 20th century, around one-third of the world's population lived under Communist governments. These governments were characterized by one-party rule and suppression of opposition and dissent. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, several previously Communist governments repudiated or abolished communism altogether. Afterwards, only a small number of Communist governments remained, which are China, Cuba, Laos, North Korea and Vietnam. While the emergence of the Soviet Union as the world's first nominally Communist state led to communism's widespread association with the Soviet economic model, several scholars posit that in practice the model functioned as a form of state capitalism. Public memory of 20th-century Communist states has been described as "a battleground" between the communist-sympathetic political left and the anti-communist political right. Many authors have written about excess deaths under Communist states and mortality rates, such as excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin. (en)
Le jardin communautaire, partagé, associatif ou encore collectif, est un jardin rural ou urbain géré en commun par un groupe d’habitants. La dénomination de jardin partagé est celle choisie par l'État français depuis 2014 (bien que les autres appellations lui soient antérieures et restent largement utilisées dans le monde francophone) : « On entend par jardins partagés les jardins créés ou animés collectivement, ayant pour objet de développer des liens sociaux de proximité par le biais d’activités sociales, culturelles ou éducatives et étant accessibles au public. » (fr) +, A community garden is a piece of land gardened or cultivated by a group of people individually or collectively. Normally in community gardens, the land is divided into individual plots. Each individual gardener is responsible for their own plot and the yielding or the production of which belongs to the individual. In collective gardens the piece of land is not divided. A group of people cultivate it together and the harvest belongs to all participants. Around the world, community gardens exist in various forms, it can be located in the proximity of neighborhoods or on balconies and rooftops. Its size can vary greatly from one to another. Community gardens have experienced three waves of major development in North America. The earliest wave of community gardens development coincided with the industrial revolution and rapid urbanization process in Europe and North America; they were then called 'Jardin d'ouvrier' (or workers' garden). The second wave of community garden development happened during the WWI and WWII; they were part of "Liberty Gardens" and "Victory Gardens" respectively. The most recent wave of community garden development happened in the 1970s during the OPEC crisis, results of grassroots movement in quest for available land to combat against food insecurity. More recently, community gardens have seen a global resurgence. This may be related to several issues faced by the global population in the 21st century, such as ecological crisis, climate change and the new sanitary crisis. Community gardens contribute to the urban agriculture movement and the requests from citizens for more community gardens has been surging in recent years. (en) +
, A community land trust (CLT) is a nonprofit corporation that holds land on behalf of a place-based community, while serving as the long-term steward for affordable housing, community gardens, civic buildings, commercial spaces and other community assets on behalf of a community. CLTs balance the needs of individuals who want security of tenure in occupying and using land and housing, with the needs of the surrounding community, striving to secure a variety of social purposes such as maintaining the affordability of local housing, preventing the displacement of vulnerable residents, and promoting economic and racial inclusion. Across the world, there is enormous diversity among CLTs in the ways that real property is owned, used, and operated and the ways that the CLT itself is guided and governed by people living on and around a CLT’s land. (en) +
A neighborhood commons is a shared community space where neighborhood residents can come together to celebrate life, and young and old can be in each other’s presence but not in each other’s way. It can be a small-scale, multi-use facility, combining a sitting area, tot lot, playground, park, and community garden, designed and constructed on one or more vacant lots by residents, volunteer professionals, and youth work teams. The term "neighborhood commons" was first widely used by landscape architect, educator, and psychologist Karl Linn, who guided the creation of many such spaces during the 1960s through 1980s, primarily in the northeastern United States. (en) +
La concertation est l’action de débattre, dans le cadre d'un dialogue engagé entre tous les acteurs concernés, qui échangent leurs arguments, afin de prendre en compte les divers points de vue exprimés et de faire ainsi émerger l’intérêt général, en amont de la mise en forme d’une proposition, avant de s’accorder en vue d’un projet commun. La concertation se distingue de la négociation en ce qu’elle n’aboutit pas nécessairement à une décision, mais qu’elle vise à la préparer. C’est le cas par exemple lorsqu’une collectivité territoriale engage un processus de concertation avec la population locale dans la perspective d’un aménagement : la décision finale appartient aux élus qui seuls en détiennent formellement le pouvoir, mais qui devront intégrer les résultats de la concertation. La concertation se distingue de la consultation, laquelle se résume à une demande d’avis, en général sur un projet prédéfini, avis qui ne lie d’ailleurs pas le destinataire de la consultation. La véritable concertation exige l’ouverture à toutes les personnes intéressées, dès la conception du projet, et suppose la confrontation entre les parties, l’échange d’arguments, l’explicitation des points de vue de chacun. La concertation se distingue de la médiation en ce qu’elle ne fait pas intervenir un tiers pour faciliter la recherche d’un accord entre les parties. Les échanges sont animés par l’une des parties prenantes ou, dans certains cas, par un facilitateur lié à l’une d’entre elles. (fr) +, Public consultation (Commonwealth countries and European Union), public comment (US), or simply consultation, is a regulatory process by which the public's input on matters affecting them is sought. Its main goals are in improving the efficiency, transparency and public involvement in large-scale projects or laws and policies. It usually involves notification (to publicise the matter to be consulted on), consultation (a two-way flow of information and opinion exchange) as well as participation (involving interest groups in the drafting of policy or legislation). A frequently used tool for understanding different levels of community participation in consultation is known as Arnstein's ladder, although some academics contest that Arnstein's ladder is contextually specific and was not intended to be a universal tool. Ineffective consultations are considered to be cosmetic consultations that were done due to obligation or show and not true participatory decision making. Public comment (or "vox populi") is a public meeting of government bodies which set aside time for public comments, usually upon documents. Such documents may either be reports such as Draft Environmental Impact Reports (DEIR's) or new regulations. There is typically a notice which is posted on the web and mailed to lists of interested parties known to the government agencies. If there is to be a change of regulations, there will be a formal notice of proposed rulemaking. The basis for public comment is found in general political theory of constitutional democracy as originated during and after the Enlightenment, particularly by Rousseau. This basis was elaborated in the American Revolution, and various thinkers such as Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson and Thomas Paine are associated with the rejection of tyrannical, closed government decision making in favor of open government. The tradition of the New England Town Hall is believed to be rooted in this early American movement, and the distillation of formal public comment in official proceedings in the United States is a direct application of this format in the workings of public administration itself. (en)
Divers philosophes, psychologues et chercheurs en sciences sociales ont travaillé sur la notion de confiance qui, selon une définition assez largement acceptée, peut être entendue comme « un état psychologique se caractérisant par l'intention d'accepter la vulnérabilité sur la base de croyances optimistes sur les intentions (ou le comportement) d'autrui ». La confiance renvoie à l’idée que l’on peut se fier à quelqu’un ou à quelque chose. Dans l’étymologie latine, le verbe confier (du latin confidere : cum, « avec » et fidere « fier ») signifie qu’on remet quelque chose de précieux à quelqu’un, en se fiant à lui et en s’abandonnant ainsi à sa bienveillance et à sa bonne foi. Cette origine souligne les liens étroits qui existent entre la confiance, l'espoir, la foi, la fidélité, la confidence, le crédit et la croyance. Confiance est aussi une des vertus chrétiennes plus importantes, particulièrement dans la dévotion à la divine miséricorde. (fr) +,
La connaissance est une notion aux sens multiples, à la fois utilisée dans le langage courant et objet d'étude poussée de la part des sciences cognitives et des philosophes contemporains. La gnoséologie accumule la connaissance en général, de même que la science accumule les connaissances scientifiques. Les connaissances, leur nature et leur variété, la façon dont elles sont acquises, leur processus d'acquisition, leur valeur et leur rôle dans les sociétés humaines, sont étudiés par une diversité de disciplines, notamment la philosophie, l'épistémologie, la psychologie, les sciences cognitives, l'anthropologie et la sociologie. (fr) +, Knowledge can be defined as awareness of facts or as practical skills, and may also refer to familiarity with objects or situations. Knowledge of facts, also called propositional knowledge, is often defined as true belief that is distinct from opinion or guesswork by virtue of justification. While there is wide agreement among philosophers that propositional knowledge is a form of true belief, many controversies in philosophy focus on justification: whether it is needed at all, how to understand it, and whether something else besides it is needed. These controversies intensified due to a series of thought experiments by Edmund Gettier and have provoked various alternative definitions. Some of them deny that justification is necessary and replace it, for example, with reliability or the manifestation of cognitive virtues. Others contend that justification is needed but formulate additional requirements, for example, that no defeaters of the belief are present or that the person would not have the belief if it was false. Knowledge can be produced in many different ways. The most important source of empirical knowledge is perception, which refers to the usage of the senses. Many theorists also include introspection as a source of knowledge, not of external physical objects, but of one's own mental states. Other sources often discussed include memory, rational intuition, inference, and testimony. According to foundationalism, some of these sources are basic in the sense that they can justify beliefs without depending on other mental states. This claim is rejected by coherentists, who contend that a sufficient degree of coherence among all the mental states of the believer is necessary for knowledge. Many different aspects of knowledge are investigated and it plays a role in various disciplines. It is the primary subject of the field of epistemology, which studies what we know, how we come to know it, and what it means to know something. The problem of the value of knowledge concerns the question of why knowledge is more valuable than mere true belief. Philosophical skepticism is the controversial thesis that we lack any form of knowledge or that knowledge is impossible. Formal epistemology studies, among other things, the rules governing how knowledge and related states behave and in what relations they stand to each other. Science tries to acquire knowledge using the scientific method, which is based on repeatable experimentation, observation, and measurement. Many religions hold that humans should seek knowledge and that God or the divine is the source of knowledge. (en)
Une constitution est une loi fondamentale qui fixe l'organisation et le fonctionnement d'un organisme, généralement d'un État ou d'un ensemble d'États. Le terme s'écrit parfois avec une majuscule initiale : Constitution. La valeur de la constitution d'un État varie selon le régime en place, elle a généralement une valeur supérieure à la loi. Elle est à la fois l'acte politique et la loi fondamentale qui unit et régit de manière organisée et hiérarchisée l’ensemble des rapports entre gouvernants et gouvernés au sein de cet État, en tant qu'unité d'espace géographique et humain. La constitution protège les droits et les libertés des citoyens contre les abus de pouvoir potentiels des titulaires des pouvoirs (exécutif, législatif, et judiciaire). Si la fiction juridique veut que la constitution fonde et encadre juridiquement l'État, il est entendu que l'histoire politique la précède et peut lui conférer à la fois sa légitimité circonstanciée et la permanence de son autorité. Cette histoire politique est alors réintroduite dans le droit en étant qualifiée de « pouvoir constituant primaire » (le pouvoir souverain qui établit une nouvelle Constitution). Plusieurs pays célèbrent officiellement l'adoption de leur constitution (Fête ou Jour de la constitution ou « Constitution Day » en anglais). Le terme « constitution » est également utilisé pour désigner les règles fondamentales d'organisations autres que des États souverains : on peut ainsi parler de la constitution de l'OIT, du projet de constitution européenne ou de la constitution civile du clergé. Il serait toutefois plus correct, pour ces organisations, d'employer les termes de traité ou d'« acte fondateur ». Dans des États fédéraux, les États fédérés peuvent avoir aussi leurs propres constitutions, comme la Californie aux États-Unis. (fr) +, A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed. When these principles are written down into a single document or set of legal documents, those documents may be said to embody a written constitution; if they are encompassed in a single comprehensive document, it is said to embody a codified constitution. The Constitution of the United Kingdom is a notable example of an uncodified constitution; it is instead written in numerous fundamental Acts of a legislature, court cases or treaties. Constitutions concern different levels of organizations, from sovereign countries to companies and unincorporated associations. A treaty which establishes an international organization is also its constitution, in that it would define how that organization is constituted. Within states, a constitution defines the principles upon which the state is based, the procedure in which laws are made and by whom. Some constitutions, especially codified constitutions, also act as limiters of state power, by establishing lines which a state's rulers cannot cross, such as fundamental rights. The Constitution of India is the longest written constitution of any country in the world, with 146,385 words in its English-language version, while the Constitution of Monaco is the shortest written constitution with 3,814 words. The Constitution of San Marino might be the world's oldest active written constitution, since some of its core documents have been in operation since 1600, while the Constitution of the United States is the oldest active codified constitution. The historical life expectancy of a constitution since 1789 is approximately 19 years. (en) +
Une coopérative est la combinaison d'un regroupement de personnes et d'une entreprise fondée sur la participation économique des membres, en capital et en opérations. Son organisation et son fonctionnement sont caractérisés par des principes et des valeurs qui confèrent à chaque coopérative un caractère universel, quel que soit son objet ou son secteur d'activité. Une partie de ces principes et valeurs, comme la démocratie à travers l'égalité de voix entre les membres, est traduite en norme juridique. L'identité coopérative s'identifie par sept principes de coopération. Ainsi, pour les prises de décision, elle repose sur le principe démocratique « une personne = une voix » qui devra élire un conseil d'administration qui nommera un directeur général. Les salariés et les membres-usagers sont ainsi tous égaux en droit. (fr) +, A cooperative (also known as co-operative, co-op, or coop) is "an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically-controlled enterprise". Cooperatives are democratically controlled by their members, with each member having one vote in electing the board of directors.Cooperatives may include:
* businesses owned and managed by the people who consume their goods and/or services (a consumer cooperative)
* businesses where producers pool their output for their common benefit (a producer cooperative)
* organizations managed by the people who work there (a worker cooperative)
* businesses where members pool their purchasing power (a purchasing cooperative)
* multi-stakeholder or hybrid cooperatives that share ownership between different stakeholder groups. For example, care cooperatives where ownership is shared between both care-givers and receivers. Stakeholders might also include non-profits or investors.
* second- and third-tier cooperatives whose members are other cooperatives
* platform cooperatives that use a cooperatively owned and governed website, mobile app or a protocol to facilitate the sale of goods and services. Research published by the Worldwatch Institute found that in 2012 approximately one billion people in 96 countries had become members of at least one cooperative. The turnover of the largest three hundred cooperatives in the world reached $2.2 trillion. Cooperative businesses are typically more productive and economically resilient than many other forms of enterprise, with twice the number of co-operatives (80%) surviving their first five years compared with other business ownership models (41%) according to data from United Kingdom. The largest worker owned cooperative in the world, the Mondragon Corporation (founded by Catholic priest José María Arizmendiarrieta), has been in continuous operation since 1956. Cooperatives frequently have social goals, which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6.9% of their pre-tax profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2.4% for other rival supermarkets. Since 2002, cooperatives have been distinguishable on the Internet through the use of a .coop domain. In 2014, the International Co-operative Alliance (ICA) introduced the Cooperative Marque, meaning ICA cooperatives and WOCCU credit unions can also be identified through a coop ethical consumerism label. (en)
La coopération est une forme d'organisation collective qui entend promouvoir dans le domaine économique et social un système fondé sur une vision partagée des différents acteurs, dans un esprit d'intérêt général, au service de toutes les parties prenantes. Cela suppose un certain degré de confiance et de compréhension. La coopération, antagoniste à l'esprit de concurrence entendu sous sa forme libérale, conduit à réviser les modes de fonctionnement ainsi que les relations économiques pour les subordonner à la réalisation de finalités plus sociales et plus solidaires. Cette recherche du bien commun peut se manifester sous une pluralité de formes :
* sous des formes spontanées, souvent individuelles, en particulier avec les systèmes d'échanges locaux (SEL)
* sous des formes organisées avec l'instauration de structures d'économie sociale, par l'initiation et la propagation de comportements d'économie solidaire) ou par l'emploi de nouvelles formes de contrats (Cf l'exemple des logiciels libres avec le principe de copyleft). (fr) +, Cooperation (written as co-operation in British English) is the process of groups of organisms working or acting together for common, mutual, or some underlying benefit, as opposed to working in competition for selfish benefit. Many animal and plant species cooperate both with other members of their own species and with members of other species (symbiosis or mutualism). (en) +
Une coopérative est la combinaison d'un regroupement de personnes et d'une entreprise fondée sur la participation économique des membres, en capital et en opérations. Son organisation et son fonctionnement sont caractérisés par des principes et des valeurs qui confèrent à chaque coopérative un caractère universel, quel que soit son objet ou son secteur d'activité. Une partie de ces principes et valeurs, comme la démocratie à travers l'égalité de voix entre les membres, est traduite en norme juridique. L'identité coopérative s'identifie par sept principes de coopération. Ainsi, pour les prises de décision, elle repose sur le principe démocratique « une personne = une voix » qui devra élire un conseil d'administration qui nommera un directeur général. Les salariés et les membres-usagers sont ainsi tous égaux en droit. (fr) +, A cooperative (also known as co-operative, co-op, or coop) is "an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically-controlled enterprise". Cooperatives are democratically controlled by their members, with each member having one vote in electing the board of directors.Cooperatives may include:
* businesses owned and managed by the people who consume their goods and/or services (a consumer cooperative)
* businesses where producers pool their output for their common benefit (a producer cooperative)
* organizations managed by the people who work there (a worker cooperative)
* businesses where members pool their purchasing power (a purchasing cooperative)
* multi-stakeholder or hybrid cooperatives that share ownership between different stakeholder groups. For example, care cooperatives where ownership is shared between both care-givers and receivers. Stakeholders might also include non-profits or investors.
* second- and third-tier cooperatives whose members are other cooperatives
* platform cooperatives that use a cooperatively owned and governed website, mobile app or a protocol to facilitate the sale of goods and services. Research published by the Worldwatch Institute found that in 2012 approximately one billion people in 96 countries had become members of at least one cooperative. The turnover of the largest three hundred cooperatives in the world reached $2.2 trillion. Cooperative businesses are typically more productive and economically resilient than many other forms of enterprise, with twice the number of co-operatives (80%) surviving their first five years compared with other business ownership models (41%) according to data from United Kingdom. The largest worker owned cooperative in the world, the Mondragon Corporation (founded by Catholic priest José María Arizmendiarrieta), has been in continuous operation since 1956. Cooperatives frequently have social goals, which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6.9% of their pre-tax profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2.4% for other rival supermarkets. Since 2002, cooperatives have been distinguishable on the Internet through the use of a .coop domain. In 2014, the International Co-operative Alliance (ICA) introduced the Cooperative Marque, meaning ICA cooperatives and WOCCU credit unions can also be identified through a coop ethical consumerism label. (en)
Cotravail Le coworking, ou cotravail, est une méthode d'organisation du travail qui regroupe un espace de travail partagé et un réseau de travailleurs pratiquant l'échange et l'ouverture ; juridiquement cela se traduit par une location d'espaces partagés de travail. En d'autres termes, le cotravail qui constitue l'un des domaines de l'économie collaborative, laquelle est par essence non commerciale, est souvent présenté comme un contexte favorisant l'innovation. Les espaces de cotravail sont en pleine expansion et jouent un rôle important en favorisant la structuration d'un véritable réseau de cotravailleurs facilitant à la fois échanges directs, réseautage, coopération et créativité. (fr) +, Coworking is an arrangement in which workers for different companies share an office space, allowing cost savings and convenience through the use of common infrastructures, such as equipment, utilities and receptionist and custodial services, and in some cases refreshments and parcel acceptance services. It is attractive to independent contractors, independent scientists, remote workers, digital nomads, and people who travel frequently. Additionally, coworking helps workers avoid the feeling of social isolation they may experience while remote working or traveling and eliminate distractions. Most coworking spaces charge membership dues. Major companies that provide coworking space and serviced offices include WeWork and IWG plc. (en) +
Creative Commons (CC) est une association à but non lucratif dont la finalité est de proposer une solution alternative légale aux personnes souhaitant libérer leurs œuvres des droits de propriété intellectuelle standard de leur pays, jugés trop restrictifs. L’organisation a créé plusieurs licences, connues sous le nom de licences Creative Commons. Ces licences, selon leur choix, ne protègent aucun ou seulement quelques droits relatifs aux œuvres. Le droit d'auteur (ou « copyright » dans les pays du Commonwealth et aux États-Unis) est plus restrictif. (fr) +, Creative Commons (CC) is an American non-profit organization and international network devoted to educational access and expanding the range of creative works available for others to build upon legally and to share. The organization has released several copyright licenses, known as Creative Commons licenses, free of charge to the public. These licenses allow authors of creative works to communicate which rights they reserve and which rights they waive for the benefit of recipients or other creators. An easy-to-understand one-page explanation of rights, with associated visual symbols, explains the specifics of each Creative Commons license. Content owners still maintain their copyright, but Creative Commons licenses give standard releases that replace the individual negotiations for specific rights between copyright owner (licensor) and licensee, that are necessary under an "all rights reserved" copyright management. The organization was founded in 2001 by Lawrence Lessig, Hal Abelson, and Eric Eldred with the support of Center for the Public Domain. The first article in a general interest publication about Creative Commons, written by Hal Plotkin, was published in February 2002. The first set of copyright licenses was released in December 2002. The founding management team that developed the licenses and built the Creative Commons infrastructure as it is known today included Molly Shaffer Van Houweling, Glenn Otis Brown, Neeru Paharia, and Ben Adida. In 2002, the Open Content Project, a 1998 precursor project by David A. Wiley, announced the Creative Commons as successor project and Wiley joined as CC director. Aaron Swartz played a role in the early stages of Creative Commons, as did Matthew Haughey. As of 2019, there were "nearly 2 billion" works licensed under the various Creative Commons licenses. Wikipedia and its sister projects use one of these licenses. According to a 2017 report, Flickr alone hosted over 415 million cc-licensed photos, along with around 49 million works in YouTube, 40 million works in DeviantArt and 37 million works in WikiMedia Commons. The licenses are also used by Stack Exchange, MDN, Internet Archive, Khan Academy, LibreTexts, OpenStax, MIT OpenCourseWare, WikiHow, OpenStreetMap, GeoGebra, Doubtnut, Fandom, Arduino, ccmixter.org, ninjam etc, and formerly by Unsplash, Pixabay and Socratic. (en)
, A cryptocurrency, crypto-currency, or crypto is a digital currency designed to work as a medium of exchange through a computer network that is not reliant on any central authority, such as a government or bank, to uphold or maintain it. It is a decentralized system for verifying that the parties to a transaction have the money they claim to have, eliminating the need for traditional intermediaries, such as banks, when funds are being transferred between two entities. Individual coin ownership records are stored in a digital ledger, which is a computerized database using strong cryptography to secure transaction records, to control the creation of additional coins, and to verify the transfer of coin ownership. Despite their name, cryptocurrencies are not considered to be currencies in the traditional sense and while varying treatments have been applied to them, including classification as commodities, securities, as well as currencies, cryptocurrencies are generally viewed as a distinct asset class in practice. Some crypto schemes use validators to maintain the cryptocurrency. In a proof-of-stake model, owners put up their tokens as collateral. In return, they get authority over the token in proportion to the amount they stake. Generally, these token stakers get additional ownership in the token over time via network fees, newly minted tokens or other such reward mechanisms. Cryptocurrency does not exist in physical form (like paper money) and is typically not issued by a central authority. Cryptocurrencies typically use decentralized control as opposed to a central bank digital currency (CBDC). When a cryptocurrency is minted or created prior to issuance or issued by a single issuer, it is generally considered centralized. When implemented with decentralized control, each cryptocurrency works through distributed ledger technology, typically a blockchain, that serves as a public financial transaction database. Traditional asset classes like currencies, commodities, and stocks, as well as macroeconomic factors, have modest exposures to cryptocurrency returns. The first decentralized cryptocurrency was Bitcoin, which first released as open-source software in 2009. As of March 2022, there were more than 9,000 other cryptocurrencies in the marketplace, of which more than 70 had a market capitalization exceeding $1 billion. (en)
En philosophie, le mot culture désigne ce qui est différent de la nature. En sociologie, comme en éthologie, la culture est définie de façon plus étroite comme « ce qui est commun à un groupe d'individus » et comme « ce qui le soude », c'est-à-dire ce qui est appris, transmis, produit et inventé. Ainsi, pour une organisation internationale comme l'UNESCO : « Dans son sens le plus large, la culture peut aujourd’hui être considérée comme l'ensemble des traits distinctifs, spirituels, matériels, intellectuels et affectifs, qui caractérisent une société ou un groupe social. Elle englobe, outre les arts, les lettres et les sciences, les modes de vie, les lois, les systèmes de valeurs, les traditions et les croyances ». Ce « réservoir commun » évolue dans le temps par et dans les formes des échanges. Il se constitue en de multiples manières distinctes d'être, de penser, d'agir et de communiquer en société. Par abus de langage, le mot « culture » est employé pour désigner presque exclusivement l'offre de pratiques et de services culturels dans les sociétés modernes, et en particulier dans le domaine des arts et des lettres. (fr) +, Culture (/ˈkʌltʃər/) is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups. Culture is often originated from or attributed to a specific region or location. Humans acquire culture through the learning processes of enculturation and socialization, which is shown by the diversity of cultures across societies. A cultural norm codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group.Accepting only a monoculture in a social group can bear risks, just as a single species can wither in the face of environmental change, for lack of functional responses to the change.Thus in military culture, valor is counted a typical behavior for an individual and duty, honor, and loyalty to the social group are counted as virtues or functional responses in the continuum of conflict. In the practice of religion, analogous attributes can be identified in a social group. Cultural change, or repositioning, is the reconstruction of a cultural concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies. Organizations like UNESCO attempt to preserve culture and cultural heritage. (en) +
La culture libre est un mouvement social et une sous-culture qui promeut la liberté de distribuer et de modifier des œuvres de l'esprit sous la forme d'œuvres libres par l'utilisation d'internet ou, plus rarement, d'autres formes de médias. Il puise sa philosophie dans celle du logiciel libre en l'appliquant à la culture et à l'information, dans des domaines aussi variés que les arts, l'éducation, les sciences, etc. La culture libre défend notamment l'idée que les droits d'auteurs ne doivent pas porter atteinte aux libertés fondamentales du public. La gestion des droits numériques (DRM) est, par exemple, dénoncée comme une entrave à la liberté d'usage du produit légalement acquis, alors que la protection du fonctionnement du produit (code source du programme, partition de musique, etc.) empêche l'utilisateur de modifier l'œuvre pour en faire sa propre version. Les mécanismes juridiques des licences libres attachées à la culture sont inspirés du logiciel libre : l'utilisation des licences art libre ou Creative Commons a ainsi permis l'émergence de la musique libre et de l'art libre. Les défenseurs de la culture libre, appelés libristes, utilisent de façon détournée les monopoles accordés par les droits d'auteur en créant leurs propres licences libres, cela afin d'autoriser précisément les usages que les lois sur les droits d'auteur prescrivent par défaut. L'immense majorité des défenseurs de la culture libre prennent également position pour le droit à la vie privée, l'accès libre à l'information et la liberté d'expression sur Internet. Certains militants ont aussi pu commettre des actes illégaux au cours de leur combat, comme l'infraction au copyright (The Pirate Bay, Aaron Swartz) ou bien la divulgation de données confidentielles qu'ils considèrent comme d'intérêt public (Edward Snowden, Alexandra Elbakyan avec Sci-Hub). (fr) +, The free-culture movement is a social movement that promotes the freedom to distribute and modify the creative works of others in the form of free content or open content without compensation to, or the consent of, the work's original creators, by using the Internet and other forms of media. The movement objects to what it considers over-restrictive copyright laws. Many members of the movement argue that such laws hinder creativity. They call this system "permission culture". The free-culture movement, with its ethos of free exchange of ideas, is aligned with the free and open-source-software movement, as well as other movements and philosophies such as open access (OA), the remix culture, the hacker culture, the access to knowledge movement, the copyleft movement and the public domain movement. (en) +
Le patrimoine culturel se définit comme l'ensemble des biens, matériels ou immatériels, ayant une importance artistique et/ou historique certaine, et qui appartiennent soit à une entité privée (personne, entreprise, association, etc.), soit à une entité publique (commune, département, région, pays, etc.) ; cet ensemble de biens culturels est généralement préservé, restauré, sauvegardé et montré au public, soit de façon exceptionnelle (comme les Journées européennes du patrimoine qui ont lieu un week-end au mois de septembre), soit de façon régulière (château, musée, église, etc.), gratuitement ou au contraire moyennant un droit d'entrée et de visite payant.
* Le patrimoine dit « matériel » est surtout constitué des paysages construits, de l'architecture et de l'urbanisme, des sites archéologiques et géologiques, de certains aménagements de l'espace agricole ou forestier, d'objets d'art et mobilier, du patrimoine industriel (outils, instruments, machines, bâti, etc.).
* Le patrimoine dit « immatériel » peut revêtir différentes formes : chants, coutumes, danses, traditions gastronomiques, jeux, mythes, contes et légendes, petits métiers, témoignages, captation de techniques et de savoir-faire, documents écrits et d'archives (dont audiovisuelles), etc. Le patrimoine fait appel à l'idée d'un héritage légué par les générations qui nous ont précédés, et que nous devons transmettre intact ou augmenté aux générations futures, ainsi qu'à la nécessité de constituer un patrimoine pour demain. On dépasse donc largement la simple propriété personnelle (droit d'user « et d'abuser » selon le droit romain). Il relève du bien public et du bien commun. « La culture ne s'hérite pas, elle se conquiert. » — André Malraux (1935) (fr) +, Cultural heritage is the heritage of tangible and intangible heritage assets of a group or society that is inherited from past generations. Not all heritages of past generations are "heritage"; rather, heritage is a product of selection by society. Cultural heritage includes tangible culture (such as buildings, monuments, landscapes, books, works of art, and artifacts), intangible culture (such as folklore, traditions, language, and knowledge), and natural heritage (including culturally significant landscapes, and biodiversity). The term is often used in connection with issues relating to the protection of Indigenous intellectual property. The deliberate act of keeping cultural heritage from the present for the future is known as preservation (American English) or conservation (British English), which cultural and historical ethnic museums and cultural centers promote, though these terms may have more specific or technical meanings in the same contexts in the other dialect. Preserved heritage has become an anchor of the global tourism industry, a major contributor of economic value to local communities. Legal protection of cultural property comprises a number of international agreements and national laws.United Nations, UNESCO and Blue Shield International deal with the protection of cultural heritage. This also applies to the integration of United Nations peacekeeping. (en) +
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Degrowth (French: décroissance) is a term used for both a political, economic, and social movement as well as a set of theories that critique the paradigm of economic growth. It can be described as an extensive framework that is based on critiques of the growth-centered economic system in which we are living. Degrowth is based on ideas from a diverse range of lines of thought such as political ecology, ecological economics, feminist political ecology, and environmental justice, pointing out the social and ecological harm caused by the pursuit of infinite growth and Western "development" imperatives. Degrowth emphasizes the need to reduce global consumption and production (social metabolism) and advocates a socially just and ecologically sustainable society with social and environmental well-being replacing GDP as the indicator of prosperity. Hence, although GDP is likely to shrink in a "Degrowth society", i.e. a society in which the objectives of the degrowth movement are achieved, this is not the primary objective of degrowth. The main argument degrowth raises is that an infinite expansion of the economy is fundamentally contradictory to finite planetary boundaries. Degrowth highlights the importance of autonomy, care work, self-organization, commons, community, open localism, work sharing, happiness and conviviality. (en) +
Democracy (From Ancient Greek: δημοκρατία, romanized: dēmokratía, dēmos 'people' and kratos 'rule') is a form of government in which the people have the authority to deliberate and decide legislation ("direct democracy"), or to choose governing officials to do so ("representative democracy"). Who is considered part of "the people" and how authority is shared among or delegated by the people has changed over time and at different rates in different countries, but over time more and more of a democratic country's inhabitants have generally been included. Cornerstones of democracy include freedom of assembly, association, property rights, freedom of religion and speech, inclusiveness and equality, citizenship, consent of the governed, voting rights, freedom from unwarranted governmental deprivation of the right to life and liberty, and minority rights. The notion of democracy has evolved over time considerably. The original form of democracy was a direct democracy. The most common form of democracy today is a representative democracy, where the people elect government officials to govern on their behalf such as in a parliamentary or presidential democracy. Prevalent day-to-day decision making of democracies is the majority rule, though other decision making approaches like supermajority and consensus have also been integral to democracies. They serve the crucial purpose of inclusiveness and broader legitimacy on sensitive issues—counterbalancing majoritarianism—and therefore mostly take precedence on a constitutional level. In the common variant of liberal democracy, the powers of the majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but the constitution limits the majority and protects the minority—usually through the enjoyment by all of certain individual rights, e.g. freedom of speech or freedom of association. The term appeared in the 5th century BC in Greek city-states, notably Classical Athens, to mean "rule of the people", in contrast to aristocracy (ἀριστοκρατία, aristokratía), meaning "rule of an elite". Western democracy, as distinct from that which existed in antiquity, is generally considered to have originated in city-states such as those in Classical Athens and the Roman Republic, where various schemes and degrees of enfranchisement of the free male population were observed before the form disappeared in the West at the beginning of late antiquity. In virtually all democratic governments throughout ancient and modern history, democratic citizenship was initially restricted to an elite class, which was later extended to all adult citizens. In most modern democracies, this was achieved through the suffrage movements of the 19th and 20th centuries. Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is either held by an individual, as in autocratic systems like absolute monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals, as in an oligarchy—oppositions inherited from ancient Greek philosophy. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders and to oust them without the need for a revolution. World public opinion strongly favors democratic systems of government. According to the V-Dem Institute and Economist Intelligence Unit democracy indices, less than half the world's population lives in a democracy as of 2021. Democratic backsliding with a rise in hybrid regimes has exceeded democratization since the early to mid 2010s. (en)
La démocratie participative est une forme de partage et d'exercice du pouvoir, fondée sur le renforcement de la participation des citoyens à la prise de décision politique. On parle également de « démocratie délibérative » pour mettre l'accent sur les différents processus permettant la participation du public à l'élaboration des décisions, pendant la phase de délibération. La démocratie participative ou délibérative peut prendre plusieurs formes, mais elle s'est d'abord instaurée sur le terrain de l'aménagement du territoire et de l'urbanisme, avant de s'étendre dans les champs de l'environnement. Dans ces cadres, les associations jouent un rôle central en tant qu'interlocuteurs pour les autorités publiques. En France, une Charte de la participation du public du ministère de l'Écologie liste les bonnes pratiques en matière de participation du public. (fr) +, Participatory democracy or participant democracy is a form of government in which citizens participate individually and directly in political decisions and policies that affect their lives, rather than through elected representatives. Elements of direct and representative democracy are combined in this model. (en) +
Le développement durable (en anglais : sustainable development, parfois traduit par développement soutenable) est une conception du développement qui s'inscrit dans une perspective de long terme et en intégrant les contraintes écologiques et sociales à l'économie. Selon la définition donnée dans le rapport de la Commission mondiale sur l'environnement et le développement de l'Organisation des Nations unies, dit rapport Brundtland, où cette expression est apparue pour la première fois en 1987, « le développement durable est un développement qui répond aux besoins du présent sans compromettre la capacité des générations futures de répondre aux leurs ». Cette notion s'est imposée à la suite de la prise de conscience progressive, depuis les années 1970, de la finitude écologique de la Terre, liée aux limites planétaires sur le long terme. La notion fait toutefois l'objet de , notamment de la part des tenants de la décroissance, pour lesquels cette notion reste trop liée à celle de la croissance économique, mais aussi de la part de ceux qui y voient un frein au développement. (fr) +, Sustainable development is an organizing principle for meeting human development goals while also sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services on which the economy and society depend. The desired result is a state of society where living conditions and resources are used to continue to meet human needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural system. Sustainable development was defined in the 1987 Brundtland Report as "Development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". As the concept of sustainable development developed, it has shifted its focus more towards the economic development, social development and environmental protection for future generations. Sustainable development was first institutionalized with the Rio Process initiated at the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. In 2015 the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Sustainable Development Goals(2015 to 2030) and explained how the goals are integrated and indivisible to achieve sustainable development at the global level. The 17 goals address the global challenges, including poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace, and justice. Sustainable development is interlinked with the normative concept of sustainability. UNESCO formulated a distinction between the two concepts as follows: "Sustainability is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it." The concept of sustainable development has been criticized in various ways. While some see it as paradoxical (or an oxymoron) and regard development as inherently unsustainable, others are disappointed in the lack of progress that has been achieved so far. Part of the problem is that "development" itself is not consistently defined. (en) +
The right to the city is an idea and a slogan first proposed by Henri Lefebvre in his 1968 book Le Droit à la Ville. This idea has been taken up more recently by social movements, thinkers, and certain progressive local authorities as a call to action to reclaim the city as a co-created space: a place for life detached from the growing effects that commodification and capitalism are proposed to have had over social interaction and the rise of posited spatial inequalities in worldwide cities throughout the last two centuries. (en) +
The right to housing (occasionally right to shelter) is the economic, social and cultural right to adequate housing and shelter. It is recognized in some national constitutions and in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The right to housing is regarded as a freestanding right in the International human rights law which was clearly in the 1991 General Comment on Adequate Housing by the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The aspect of the right to housing under ICESCR include: availability of services, infrastructure, material and facilities; legal security of tenure; habitability; accessibility; affordability; location and cultural adequacy. The UN Human Settlement Programme which promotes the right to housing in cooperation with the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Right is a reaffirmation of the 1996 Istanbul agreement and Habitat Agenda. It is known as UN-HABITAT, which is tasked with promoting housing rights through monitoring systems and awareness campaigns. The section 26, chapter Two of the South African constitution establishes that ''everyone has the right to have access to adequate housing'' and it is the task of the Department of Human Settlement to implement this mandate. In United States, most states do not grant the right to shelter except in Massachusetts where just families have right to shelter. The 1999 constitution of Nigeria recognized the right to housing specifically in the section 43 which states: ''every citizen of Nigeria shall have the right to acquire and own immovable property anywhere in Nigeria''. (en) +
Le droit de propriété est le droit d'user (usus), de jouir (fructus) et de disposer (abusus) d'une chose, d'en être le maître absolu dans les conditions fixées par la loi. Dans le droit français, « La propriété est le droit de jouir et disposer des choses de la manière la plus absolue, pourvu qu’on n’en fasse pas un usage prohibé par les lois ou par les règlements » (article 544 du Code civil). La propriété désigne également le bien sur lequel porte ce droit civil. Cette propriété peut être immobilière ou mobilière, si l'on en croit l'adage selon lequel en fait de meuble, possession vaut titre (de propriété). Selon certains philosophes, les droits de propriété découlent de conventions sociales ou de contrats. Selon d'autres[Qui ?], ils trouvent leurs origines dans la loi naturelle. [réf. nécessaire] L'usage et la gestion collectifs, souvent considérés comme propriété collective, existent depuis fort longtemps et sont bien attestés dans les sociétés et cultures traditionnelles. Les premières théories juridiques formelles de la propriété privée se constituent dans une perspective individualiste, en particulier dans le libéralisme. Celui-ci consacre le droit de propriété au sens moderne comme un droit naturel et une prérogative des personnes physiques. Le retour et l'accès des personnes morales au droit de propriété se fait ultérieurement et progressivement [réf. souhaitée]. Le droit anglo-américain connait la propriété personnelle. La propriété existe aussi pour ce qu'on appelle propriété intellectuelle : droits sur les créations artistiques, les inventions… Le droit de propriété fait aujourd'hui l'objet d'un renouveau d'attention, notamment au travers de la question de son aptitude à gérer les biens informatiques (logiciels, systèmes), en harmonie avec le droit de la propriété intellectuelle. Le droit de propriété est un droit subjectif [pas clair]. (fr) +
Les droits culturels s’inscrivent dans le cadre juridique des droits de l’homme. Ils visent à faire reconnaître le droit de chaque personne à participer à la vie culturelle, de vivre et d’exprimer sa culture et ses références, dans le respect des autres droits humains fondamentaux. (fr) +, The cultural rights movement has provoked attention to protect the rights of groups of people, or their culture, in similar fashion to the manner in which the human rights movement has brought attention to the needs of individuals throughout the world. (en) +
Women's rights are the rights and entitlements claimed for women and girls worldwide. They formed the basis for the women's rights movement in the 19th century and the feminist movements during the 20th and 21st centuries. In some countries, these rights are institutionalized or supported by law, local custom, and behavior, whereas in others, they are ignored and suppressed. They differ from broader notions of human rights through claims of an inherent historical and traditional bias against the exercise of rights by women and girls, in favor of men and boys. Issues commonly associated with notions of women's rights include the right to bodily integrity and autonomy, to be free from sexual violence, to vote, to hold public office, to enter into legal contracts, to have equal rights in family law, to work, to fair wages or equal pay, to have reproductive rights, to own property, and to education. (en) +
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Irrigation is the agricultural process of applying controlled amounts of water to land to assist in the production of crops, as well as to grow landscape plants and lawns, where it may be known as watering. Agriculture that does not use irrigation but instead relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed. Irrigation has been a central feature of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been developed independently by many cultures across the globe. Irrigation helps to grow agricultural crops, maintain landscapes, and revegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of less than average rainfall. Irrigation also has other uses in crop production, including frost protection, suppressing weed growth in grain fields and preventing soil consolidation. Irrigation systems are also used for cooling livestock, dust suppression, disposal of sewage, and in mining. Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is the removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given location. There are various types of irrigation. Micro-irrigation uses less pressure and water flow than overhead irrigation. Drip irrigation trickles out at the root zone. (en) +
Sanitation refers to public health conditions related to clean drinking water and treatment and disposal of human excreta and sewage. Preventing human contact with feces is part of sanitation, as is hand washing with soap. Sanitation systems aim to protect human health by providing a clean environment that will stop the transmission of disease, especially through the fecal–oral route. For example, diarrhea, a main cause of malnutrition and stunted growth in children, can be reduced through adequate sanitation. There are many other diseases which are easily transmitted in communities that have low levels of sanitation, such as ascariasis (a type of intestinal worm infection or helminthiasis), cholera, hepatitis, polio, schistosomiasis, and trachoma, to name just a few. A range of sanitation technologies and approaches exists. Some examples are community-led total sanitation, container-based sanitation, ecological sanitation, emergency sanitation, environmental sanitation, and sustainable sanitation. A sanitation system includes the capture, storage, transport, treatment and disposal or reuse of human excreta and wastewater. Reuse activities within the sanitation system may focus on the nutrients, water, energy or organic matter contained in excreta and wastewater. This is referred to as the "sanitation value chain" or "sanitation economy". The people responsible for cleaning, maintaining, operating, or emptying a sanitation technology at any step of the sanitation chain are called "sanitation workers". Several sanitation "levels" are being used to compare sanitation service levels within countries or across countries. The sanitation ladder defined by the Joint Monitoring Programme in 2016 starts at open defecation and moves upwards using the terms "unimproved", "limited", "basic", with the highest level being "safely managed". This is particularly applicable to developing countries. The Human Right to Water and Sanitation was recognized by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in 2010. Sanitation is a global development priority and the subject of Sustainable Development Goal 6. The estimate in 2017 by JMP states that 4.5 billion people currently do not have safely managed sanitation. Lack of access to sanitation has an impact not only on public health but also on human dignity and personal safety. (en)
Drinking water is water that is used in drink or food preparation; potable water is water that is safe to be used as drinking water. The amount of drinking water required to maintain good health varies, and depends on physical activity level, age, health-related issues, and environmental conditions. Recent work showed that the most important driver of water turnover which is closely linked to water requirements is energy expenditure. For those who work in a hot climate, up to 16 litres (4.2 US gal) a day may be required. Typically in developed countries, tap water meets drinking water quality standards, even though only a small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation. Other typical uses for tap water include washing, toilets, and irrigation. Greywater may also be used for toilets or irrigation. Its use for irrigation however may be associated with risks. Water may also be unacceptable due to levels of toxins or suspended solids. Globally, by 2015, 89% of people had access to water from a source that is suitable for drinking – called improved water source. In sub-Saharan Africa, access to potable water ranged from 40% to 80% of the population. Nearly 4.2 billion people worldwide had access to tap water, while another 2.4 billion had access to wells or public taps. The World Health Organization considers access to safe drinking-water a basic human right. About 1 to 2 billion people lack safe drinking water. Water can carry vectors of disease. More people die from unsafe water than from war, then-U.N. secretary-general Ban Ki-moon said in 2010. Third world countries are most affected by lack of water, flooding, and water quality. Up to 80 percent of illnesses in developing countries are the direct result of inadequate water and sanitation. According to a report by UNICEF and UNESCO, Finland has the best drinking water quality in the world. (en) +, Une eau liquide est dite potable (du latin potabilis, qui signifie « qui peut être bu ») lorsqu'elle présente certaines caractéristiques — concentration en chlorures, pH, température… — la rendant propre à la consommation humaine. (fr) +
Les eaux souterraines sont toutes les eaux se trouvant sous la surface du sol, dans la zone de saturation et en contact direct avec le sol ou le sous-sol. En tant que ressource naturelle vitale et plus ou moins renouvelable et parfois transfrontalières, ces eaux posent des questions juridiques particulières. C'est parfois une source de conflit inter ethnique ou entre pays. Les aquifères souterrains sont la réserve majeure (98 à 99 %)de l'eau douce exploitable sur les terres émergées. L’utilisation de l’eau souterraine se répartit de façon variable d’un pays à l’autre. Les pourcentages d’utilisation, selon les trois catégories, sont les suivants :
* 65 % (0 à 97 %) pour l’irrigation;
* 25 % (0 à 93 %) pour l'eau potable;
* 10 % (0 à 64 %) pour l'industrie. La carte des réserves aquifères connues en 2008 (publiée par l'UNESCO) montre 273 aquifères transfrontaliers (68 en Amérique, 38 en Afrique, 65 en Europe de l'Est, 90 en Europe occidentale et 12 en Asie où le recensement n'était pas terminé). Les aquifères majeurs connus en 2008 étaient en Amérique du Sud et Afrique du Nord. Les grands aquifères d'Afrique centrale sont encore mal explorés et rarement exploitées. La multiplication des pompes électriques et petits systèmes de pompage et forage a fortement augmenté la pression sur les nappes, souvent surexploitées dans les zones habitées et de grandes cultures et parfois déjà pollués. Leur exploitation pose aussi des questions sur nos responsabilités à l'égard des générations futures ou de l'amont vers l'aval (du point de vue du sens de circulation des masses d'eau souterraines, ou de leur alimentation via les bassins versants en surface le cas échéant). Il existe des eaux fossiles non renouvelables aux échelles humaines de temps et des aquifères profonds qui ne sont que très lentement réalimentés. (fr) +, Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available freshwater in the world is groundwater. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table. Groundwater is recharged from the surface; it may discharge from the surface naturally at springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, also called groundwater hydrology. Typically, groundwater is thought of as water flowing through shallow aquifers, but, in the technical sense, it can also contain soil moisture, permafrost (frozen soil), immobile water in very low permeability bedrock, and deep geothermal or oil formation water. Groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults. It is likely that much of Earth's subsurface contains some water, which may be mixed with other fluids in some instances. Groundwater is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water. Therefore, it is commonly used for public water supplies. For example, groundwater provides the largest source of usable water storage in the United States, and California annually withdraws the largest amount of groundwater of all the states. Underground reservoirs contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes in the US, including the Great Lakes. Many municipal water supplies are derived solely from groundwater. Over 2 billion people rely on it as their primary water source worldwide. Use of groundwater has related environmental issues. For example, polluted groundwater is less visible and more difficult to clean up than pollution in rivers and lakes. Groundwater pollution most often results from improper disposal of wastes on land. Major sources include industrial and household chemicals and garbage landfills, excessive fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture, industrial waste lagoons, tailings and process wastewater from mines, industrial fracking, oil field brine pits, leaking underground oil storage tanks and pipelines, sewage sludge and septic systems. Additionally, groundwater is susceptible to saltwater intrusion in coastal areas and can cause land subsidence when extracted unsustainably, leading to sinking cities (like Bangkok)) and loss in elevation (such as the multiple meters lost in the Central Valley of California). These issues are made more complicated by sea level rise and other changes caused by climate changes which will affect the water cycle. (en)
Ecotourism is a form of tourism involving responsible travel (using sustainable transport) to natural areas, conserving the environment, and improving the well-being of the local people. Its purpose may be to educate the traveler, to provide funds for ecological conservation, to directly benefit the economic development and political empowerment of local communities, or to foster respect for different cultures and for human rights. Since the 1980s, ecotourism has been considered a critical endeavor by environmentalists, so that future generations may experience destinations relatively untouched by human intervention. Ecotourism may focus on educating travelers on local environments and natural surroundings with an eye to ecological conservation. Some include in the definition of ecotourism the effort to produce economic opportunities that make conservation of natural resources financially possible. Generally, ecotourism deals with interaction with biotic components of the natural environments. Ecotourism focuses on socially responsible travel, personal growth, and environmental sustainability. Ecotourism typically involves travel to destinations where flora, fauna, and cultural heritage are the primary attractions. Ecotourism is intended to offer tourists an insight into the impact of human beings on the environment and to foster a greater appreciation of our natural habitats. Ecotourism aims at minimal environmental impact on the areas visited. Besides fostering respect towards the natural environment, ecotourism also helps in creating socio-economic benefits for the communities of the area visited. Responsible ecotourism programs include those that minimize the negative aspects of conventional tourism on the environment and enhance the cultural integrity of local people. Therefore, in addition to evaluating environmental and cultural factors, an integral part of ecotourism is the promotion of recycling, energy efficiency, water conservation, and creation of economic opportunities for local communities. For these reasons, ecotourism often appeals to advocates of environmental and social responsibility. Many consider the term "ecotourism", like "sustainable tourism" (which is a related concept but broader), an oxymoron. Like most long-distance travel, ecotourism often depends on air transportation, which contributes to climate change. Additionally, "the overall effect of sustainable tourism is negative where like ecotourism philanthropic aspirations mask hard-nosed immediate self-interest." (en)
In capitalism, the sharing economy is a socio-economic system built around the sharing of resources. It often involves a way of purchasing goods and services that differs from the traditional business model of companies hiring employees to produce products to sell to consumers. It includes the shared creation, production, distribution, trade and consumption of goods and services by different people and organisations. These systems take a variety of forms, often leveraging information technology (particularly digital platforms) to empower individuals, corporations, non-profits and government with information that enables distribution, sharing and reuse of excess capacity in goods and services. There are two main types of sharing economy initiatives:
* Non-profit, usually based on the concept of book-lending libraries, in which goods and services are provided for free (or sometimes for a modest subscription).
* Commercial, in which a company provides a service to customers for profit. (en) +
A subsistence economy is an economy directed to basic subsistence (the provision of food, clothing, shelter) rather than to the market. Henceforth, "subsistence" is understood as supporting oneself at a minimum level. Often, the subsistence economy is moneyless and relies on natural resources to provide for basic needs through hunting, gathering, and agriculture. In a subsistence economy, economic surplus is minimal and only used to trade for basic goods, and there is no industrialization.In hunting and gathering societies, resources are often if not typically underused. In human history, before the first cities, all humans lived in a subsistence economy. As urbanization, civilization, and division of labor spread, various societies moved to other economic systems at various times. Some remain relatively unchanged, ranging from uncontacted peoples, to marginalized areas of developing countries, to some cultures that choose to retain a traditional economy. Capital can be generally defined as assets invested with the expectation that their value will increase, usually because there is the expectation of profit, rent, interest, royalties, capital gain or some other kind of return. However, this type of economy cannot usually become wealthy by virtue of the system, and instead requires further investments to stimulate economic growth. In other words, a subsistence economy only possesses enough goods to be used by a particular nation to maintain its existence and provides little to no surplus for other investments. It is common for a surplus capital to be invested in social capital such as feasting. (en) +
The social economy is formed by a rich diversity of enterprises and organisations, such as cooperatives, mutuals, associations, foundations, social enterprises and paritarian institutions, sharing common values and features:
* Primacy of the individual and the social objective over capital
* Voluntary and open membership
* Democratic governance
* Combination of interests of members/users and/or the general interest
* Defence and application of the principles of solidarity and responsibility
* Autonomous management and independence from public authorities, though cross-sector collaboration is common
* Reinvestment of at least most of the profits to carry out sustainable development objectives, services of interest to members or of general interest Social economy enterprises and organisations have different sizes, ranging from SMEs to large companies and groups that are leaders in their markets, and operate in all the economic sectors. (en) +
A gift economy or gift culture is a system of exchange where valuables are not sold, but rather given without an explicit agreement for immediate or future rewards. Social norms and customs govern giving a gift in a gift culture; although there is some expectation of reciprocity, gifts are not given in an explicit exchange of goods or services for money, or some other commodity or service. This contrasts with a barter economy or a market economy, where goods and services are primarily explicitly exchanged for value received. The nature of gift economies is the subject of a foundational debate in anthropology. Anthropological research into gift economies began with Bronisław Malinowski's description of the Kula ring in the Trobriand Islands during World War I. The Kula trade appeared to be gift-like since Trobrianders would travel great distances over dangerous seas to give what were considered valuable objects without any guarantee of a return. Malinowski's debate with the French anthropologist Marcel Mauss quickly established the complexity of "gift exchange" and introduced a series of technical terms such as reciprocity, inalienable possessions, and presentation to distinguish between the different forms of exchange. According to anthropologists Maurice Bloch and Jonathan Parry, it is the unsettled relationship between market and non-market exchange that attracts the most attention. Some authors argue that gift economies build community, while markets harm community relationships. Gift exchange is distinguished from other forms of exchange by a number of principles, such as the form of property rights governing the articles exchanged; whether gifting forms a distinct "sphere of exchange" that can be characterized as an "economic system"; and the character of the social relationship that the gift exchange establishes. Gift ideology in highly commercialized societies differs from the "prestations" typical of non-market societies. Gift economies also differ from related phenomena, such as common property regimes and the exchange of non-commodified labour. (en)
An ecodistrict or eco-district is a neologism associating the terms "district" and "eco" as an abbreviation of ecological.It designates an urban planning aiming to integrate objectives of sustainable development and social equity and reduce the ecological footprint of a neighborhood, urban area, or region. This notion insists on the consideration of the whole environmental issues by way of a collaborative process. In order to design ecodistricts, one needs to completely redesign their energy system plans. The usage of photovoltaic panels and electric vehicles is common. (en) +
Ecotourism is a form of tourism involving responsible travel (using sustainable transport) to natural areas, conserving the environment, and improving the well-being of the local people. Its purpose may be to educate the traveler, to provide funds for ecological conservation, to directly benefit the economic development and political empowerment of local communities, or to foster respect for different cultures and for human rights. Since the 1980s, ecotourism has been considered a critical endeavor by environmentalists, so that future generations may experience destinations relatively untouched by human intervention. Ecotourism may focus on educating travelers on local environments and natural surroundings with an eye to ecological conservation. Some include in the definition of ecotourism the effort to produce economic opportunities that make conservation of natural resources financially possible. Generally, ecotourism deals with interaction with biotic components of the natural environments. Ecotourism focuses on socially responsible travel, personal growth, and environmental sustainability. Ecotourism typically involves travel to destinations where flora, fauna, and cultural heritage are the primary attractions. Ecotourism is intended to offer tourists an insight into the impact of human beings on the environment and to foster a greater appreciation of our natural habitats. Ecotourism aims at minimal environmental impact on the areas visited. Besides fostering respect towards the natural environment, ecotourism also helps in creating socio-economic benefits for the communities of the area visited. Responsible ecotourism programs include those that minimize the negative aspects of conventional tourism on the environment and enhance the cultural integrity of local people. Therefore, in addition to evaluating environmental and cultural factors, an integral part of ecotourism is the promotion of recycling, energy efficiency, water conservation, and creation of economic opportunities for local communities. For these reasons, ecotourism often appeals to advocates of environmental and social responsibility. Many consider the term "ecotourism", like "sustainable tourism" (which is a related concept but broader), an oxymoron. Like most long-distance travel, ecotourism often depends on air transportation, which contributes to climate change. Additionally, "the overall effect of sustainable tourism is negative where like ecotourism philanthropic aspirations mask hard-nosed immediate self-interest." (en) , L'écotourisme, associé au tourisme vert, est l’une des formes du tourisme durable, plus centrée sur la découverte de la nature (écosystèmes, mais aussi agrosystèmes et tourisme rural), voire d'écologie urbaine (jardins écologiques, espaces verts écologiques, réserves naturelles urbaines et autres aspects de l'écologie urbaine). (fr) +
Education is a purposeful activity directed at achieving certain aims, such as transmitting knowledge or fostering skills and character traits. These aims may include the development of understanding, rationality, kindness, and honesty. Various researchers emphasize the role of critical thinking in order to distinguish education from indoctrination. Some theorists require that education results in an improvement of the student while others prefer a value-neutral definition of the term. In a slightly different sense, education may also refer, not to the process, but to the product of this process: the mental states and dispositions possessed by educated people. Education originated as the transmission of cultural heritage from one generation to the next. Today, educational goals increasingly encompass new ideas such as the liberation of learners, skills needed for modern society, empathy, and complex vocational skills. Types of education are commonly divided into formal, non-formal, and informal education. Formal education takes place in education and training institutions, is usually structured by curricular aims and objectives, and learning is typically guided by a teacher. In most regions, formal education is compulsory up to a certain age and commonly divided into educational stages such as kindergarten, primary school and secondary school. Nonformal education occurs as addition or alternative to formal education. It may be structured according to educational arrangements, but in a more flexible manner, and usually takes place in community-based, workplace-based or civil society-based settings. Lastly, informal education occurs in daily life, in the family, any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational, whether unintentional or intentional. In practice there is a continuum from the highly formalized to the highly informalized, and informal learning can occur in all three settings. For instance, homeschooling can be classified as nonformal or informal, depending upon the structure. Regardless of setting, educational methods include teaching, training, storytelling, discussion, and directed research. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy. Education is supported by a variety of different philosophies, theories and empirical research agendas. There are movements for education reforms, such as for improving quality and efficiency of education towards relevance in students' lives and efficient problem solving in modern or future society at large, or for evidence-based education methodologies. A right to education has been recognized by some governments and the United Nations. Global initiatives aim at achieving the Sustainable Development Goal 4, which promotes quality education for all. (en)
L'éducation populaire (en Belgique, éducation permanente) est un courant de pensée qui cherche principalement à promouvoir, en dehors des structures traditionnelles d'enseignement et des systèmes éducatifs institutionnels, une éducation visant l'amélioration du système social. Depuis le XVIIIe siècle occidental, ce courant d'idées traverse de nombreux et divers mouvements qui militent plus largement pour le développement individuel des personnes et le développement social communautaire (dans un quartier, une ville ou un groupe d'appartenance, religion, origine géographique, lieu d'habitation, etc.) afin de permettre à chacun de s'épanouir et de trouver une place dans la société. Il s’agit, plus largement, de faciliter l’accès aux savoirs, à la culture, afin de développer la conscientisation, l’émancipation et l’exercice de la citoyenneté, "en recourant aux pédagogies actives pour rendre chacun acteur de ses apprentissages, qu’il partage avec d’autres". L'action des mouvements d'éducation populaire se positionne en complément de l'enseignement formel. C'est une éducation qui dit reconnaître à chacun la volonté et la capacité de progresser et de se développer, à tous les âges de la vie. Elle ne se limite pas à la diffusion de la culture académique, elle reconnaît aussi la culture dite populaire (culture ouvrière, des paysans, de la banlieue, etc.). Elle s'intéresse à l'art, aux sciences, aux techniques, aux sports, aux activités ludiques, à la philosophie, à la politique. Cette éducation est perçue comme l'occasion de développer les capacités de chacun à vivre ensemble, à confronter ses idées, à partager une vie de groupe, à s'exprimer en public, à écouter, etc. L'animation sociale et culturelle est un domaine d'investissement important d'éducation populaire. Au XXe siècle, avec l'institutionnalisation de certains mouvements et fédérations se réclamant de l'éducation populaire[réf. nécessaire], l'éducation populaire est également devenue un secteur marchand, où les acteurs historiques (des associations, mais aussi les sociétés idoines qu'elles ont créées) font désormais face à de nouvelles sociétés spécialisées. (fr) , Popular education is a concept grounded in notions of class, political struggle, and social transformation. The term is a translation from the Spanish educación popular or the Portuguese educação popular and rather than the English usage as when describing a 'popular television programme', popular here means 'of the people'. More specifically 'popular' refers to the 'popular classes', which include peasants, the unemployed, the working class and sometimes the lower middle class. The designation of 'popular' is meant most of all to exclude the upper class and upper middle class. Popular education is used to classify a wide array of educational endeavours and has been a strong tradition in Latin America since the end of the first half of the 20th century. These endeavors are either composed of or carried out in the interests of the popular classes. The diversity of projects and endeavors claiming or receiving the label of popular education makes the term difficult to precisely define. Generally, one can say that popular education is class-based in nature and rejects the notion of education as transmission or 'banking education'. It stresses a dialectic or dialogical model between educator and educand. This model is explored in great detail in the works of one of the foremost popular educators Paulo Freire. Though sharing many similarities with other forms of alternative education, popular education is a distinct form in its own right. In the words of Liam Kane:"What distinguishes popular education from 'adult', 'non-formal', 'distance', or 'permanent education', for example, is that in the context of social injustice, education can never be politically neutral: if it does not side with the poorest and marginalised sectors- the 'oppressed' – in an attempt to transform society, then it necessarily sides with the 'oppressors' in maintaining the existing structures of oppression, even if by default." (en) +
Emancipation generally means to free a person from a previous restraint or legal disability. More broadly, it is also used for efforts to procure economic and social rights, political rights or equality, often for a specifically disenfranchised group, or more generally, in discussion of many matters. Among others, Karl Marx discussed political emancipation in his 1844 essay "On the Jewish Question", although often in addition to (or in contrast with) the term human emancipation. Marx's views of political emancipation in this work were summarized by one writer as entailing "equal status of individual citizens in relation to the state, equality before the law, regardless of religion, property, or other 'private' characteristics of individual people." "Political emancipation" as a phrase is less common in modern usage, especially outside academic, foreign or activist contexts. However, similar concepts may be referred to by other terms. For instance, in the United States the Civil Rights Movement culminated in the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which can collectively be seen as further realization of events such as the Emancipation Proclamation and abolition of slavery a century earlier. In the current and former British West Indies islands the holiday Emancipation Day is celebrated to mark the end of the Atlantic slave trade. (en) +
Enclosure ou inclosure est un terme anglais qui désigne l'action d'enclore un champ. Cet anglicisme est passé en français où il désigne la parcelle de terrain enclose de haies, de murs ou de barrières, bien que les Picards utilisaient plutôt le mot « renclôture ». Ce terme fait souvent référence au mouvement des enclosures qui s'est développé en Angleterre à partir du XVIe siècle, et qui s'est intensifié aux débuts de la révolution industrielle au XIXe siècle. (fr) +, Enclosure or Inclosure is a term, used in English landownership, that refers to the appropriation of "waste" or "common land" enclosing it and by doing so depriving commoners of their rights of access and privilege. Agreements to enclose land could be either through a formal or informal process. The process could normally be accomplished in three ways. First there was the creation of "closes", taken out of larger common fields by their owners. Secondly, there was enclosure by proprietors, owners who acted together, usually small farmers or squires, leading to the enclosure of whole parishes. Finally there were enclosures by Acts of Parliament. The primary reason for enclosure was to improve the efficiency of agriculture. However, there were other motives too, one example being that the value of the land enclosed would be substantially increased. There were social consequences to the policy, with many protests at the removal of rights from the common people. Enclosure riots are seen by historians as 'the pre-eminent form' of social protest from the 1530s to 1640s. (en) +
L'énergie est un concept relié à ceux d'action, de force et de durée : la mise en œuvre d'une action nécessite de maintenir une certaine force pendant une durée suffisante, pour vaincre les inerties et résistances qui s'opposent à ce changement. L'énergie qui aura été nécessaire pour accomplir finalement l'action envisagée rend compte à la fois de la force et de la durée pendant laquelle elle aura été exercée. Le sens premier est celui d'une vertu morale : l'énergie morale et physique que l'homme doit mettre en œuvre pour accomplir un travail donné, mais l'énergie est aussi étudiée en physique, et en économie, pour évoquer notamment la production, la distribution et la consommation d'énergie, les enjeux environnementaux associés, ainsi que la question des ressources énergétiques, renouvelables ou non. (fr) +, In physics, energy (from Ancient Greek: ἐνέργεια, enérgeia, “activity”) is the quantitative property that is to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of heat and light. Energy is a conserved quantity—the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The unit of measurement for energy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule (J). Common forms of energy include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the potential energy stored by an object (for instance due to its position in a field), the elastic energy stored in a solid object, chemical energy associated with chemical reactions, the radiant energy carried by electromagnetic radiation, and the internal energy contained within a thermodynamic system. All living organisms constantly take in and release energy. Due to mass–energy equivalence, any object that has mass when stationary (called rest mass) also has an equivalent amount of energy whose form is called rest energy, and any additional energy (of any form) acquired by the object above that rest energy will increase the object's total mass just as it increases its total energy. Human civilization requires energy to function, which it gets from energy resources such as fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy. The Earth's climate and ecosystems processes are driven by the energy the planet receives from the Sun (although a small amount is also contributed by geothermal energy). (en) +
Social engagement (also social involvement, social participation) refers to one's degree of participation in a community or society. (en) +
Une entreprise également appelée firme, compagnie, société et familièrement boîte ou business est une organisation ou une unité institutionnelle, mue par un projet décliné en stratégie, en politiques et en plans d'action, dont le but est de produire et de fournir des biens ou des services à destination d'un ensemble de clients, en réalisant un équilibre de ses comptes de charges et de produits. Pour ce faire, une entreprise fait appel, mobilise et consomme des ressources (matérielles, humaines, financières, immatérielles et informationnelles) ce qui la conduit à devoir coordonner des fonctions (fonction d'achat, fonction commerciale, fonction informatique, etc.). Elle exerce son activité dans le cadre d'un contexte précis auquel elle doit s'adapter : un environnement plus ou moins concurrentiel, une filière technico-économique caractérisée par un état de l'art, un cadre socio-culturel et réglementaire spécifique. Elle peut se donner comme objectif de dégager un certain niveau de rentabilité, plus ou moins élevé. Une entreprise est considérée du point de vue légal comme une personne morale et doit en tant que telle établir une distinction entre les ressources matérielles et les ressources humaines. Du point de vue social, en effet, les entreprises génèrent des profits, qui les autorisent à verser des salaires, donc à faire vivre une ville ou une région. De ce même point de vue, les administrations ne créent aucune richesse et sont un coût pour la société humaine. Aucune entreprise ne peut s'exempter de l'équilibre entre le niveau de ses revenus et de ses charges. En cas d'écart déficitaire, celui-ci doit être réduit ou comblé par un apport extérieur (par exemple, une subvention d'équilibre) sous peine de non-viabilité et de disparition de l'entreprise à plus ou moins brève échéance. Depuis le début du XXIe siècle, les entreprises sont appelées à prendre en compte les exigences de (sustainable development en anglais), à travers ce que l'on appelle la responsabilité sociétale des entreprises (RSE), corporate social responsibility (CSR) en anglais. (fr) , Business is the practice of making one's living or making money by producing or buying and selling products (such as goods and services). It is also "any activity or enterprise entered into for profit." Having a business name does not separate the business entity from the owner, which means that the owner of the business is responsible and liable for debts incurred by the business. If the business acquires debts, the creditors can go after the owner's personal possessions. A business structure does not allow for corporate tax rates. The proprietor is personally taxed on all income from the business. The term is also often used colloquially (but not by lawyers or by public officials) to refer to a company, such as a corporation or cooperative. Corporations, in contrast with sole proprietors and partnerships, are a separate legal entity and provide limited liability for their owners/members, as well as being subject to corporate tax rates. A corporation is more complicated and expensive to set up, but offers more protection and benefits for the owners/members. (en) +
A state is a centralized political organization that imposes and enforces rules over a population within a territory. There is no undisputed definition of a state. One widely used definition comes from the German sociologist Max Weber: a "state" is a polity that maintains a monopoly on the legitimate use of violence, although other definitions are not uncommon. Absence of a state does not preclude the existence of a society, such as stateless societies like the Haudenosaunee Confederacy that "do not have either purely or even primarily political institutions or roles". The level of governance of a state, government being considered to form the fundamental apparatus of contemporary states, is used to determine whether it has failed. In a federal union, the term "state" is sometimes used to refer to the federated polities that make up the federation. (Other terms that are used in such federal systems may include “province”, “region” or other terms.) Most of the human population has existed within a state system for millennia; however, for most of prehistory people lived in stateless societies. The earliest forms of states arose about 5,500 years ago as governments gained state capacity in conjunction with rapid growth of cities, invention of writing and codification of new forms of religion. Over time, a variety of forms of states developed, which used many different justifications for their existence (such as divine right, the theory of the social contract, etc.). Today, the modern nation state is the predominant form of state to which people are subject. (en) +
A state is a centralized political organization that imposes and enforces rules over a population within a territory. There is no undisputed definition of a state. One widely used definition comes from the German sociologist Max Weber: a "state" is a polity that maintains a monopoly on the legitimate use of violence, although other definitions are not uncommon. Absence of a state does not preclude the existence of a society, such as stateless societies like the Haudenosaunee Confederacy that "do not have either purely or even primarily political institutions or roles". The level of governance of a state, government being considered to form the fundamental apparatus of contemporary states, is used to determine whether it has failed. In a federal union, the term "state" is sometimes used to refer to the federated polities that make up the federation. (Other terms that are used in such federal systems may include “province”, “region” or other terms.) Most of the human population has existed within a state system for millennia; however, for most of prehistory people lived in stateless societies. The earliest forms of states arose about 5,500 years ago as governments gained state capacity in conjunction with rapid growth of cities, invention of writing and codification of new forms of religion. Over time, a variety of forms of states developed, which used many different justifications for their existence (such as divine right, the theory of the social contract, etc.). Today, the modern nation state is the predominant form of state to which people are subject. (en) +
Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior". The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns matters of value; these fields comprise the branch of philosophy called axiology. Ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality by defining concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime. As a field of intellectual inquiry, moral philosophy is related to the fields of moral psychology, descriptive ethics, and value theory. Three major areas of study within ethics recognized today are: 1.
* Meta-ethics, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions, and how their truth values (if any) can be determined; 2.
* Normative ethics, concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of action; 3.
* Applied ethics, concerning what a person is obligated (or permitted) to do in a specific situation or a particular domain of action. (en) +
L'agriculture intensive est un système de production agricole fondé sur un accroissement de la production agricole optimisé par rapport à la disponibilité des facteurs de production (moyens humains, matériels et surfaces cultivées). Ce rapport entre volume produit et facteur de production est appelé productivité. L'agriculture intensive existe dans deux systèmes opposés, l'un traditionnel, l'autre moderne. En système traditionnel, les ressources humaines sont nombreuses, la force animale est souvent employée, la biodiversité est élevée et plusieurs espèces complémentaires sont parfois cultivées ensemble, mais les moyens matériels (et souvent les disponibilités foncières) sont rares : l'intensification agricole y est fondée sur l'investissement humain maximal par rapport aux autres facteurs de production. Les impacts environnementaux sont faibles (agriculture extensive au sens large). En système moderne, la situation est inverse : les moyens humains sont en grande partie remplacés par des machines ou robots, l'intensification requiert des investissements importants et une utilisation accrue d’intrants (engrais, produits phytosanitaires, matériel agricole, énergie). C'est ce deuxième système qui est habituellement désigné par l'appellation « agriculture intensive ». Les caractéristiques (mécanisation, chimisation, standardisation et augmentation de la taille des parcelles) de l'intensification de l'agriculture à l’échelle des parcelles et des paysages, expliquent que les impacts environnementaux y sont plus importants. (fr) +, Intensive agriculture, also known as intensive farming (as opposed to extensive farming), conventional, or industrial agriculture, is a type of agriculture, both of crop plants and of animals, with higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area. It is characterized by a low fallow ratio, higher use of inputs such as capital and labour, and higher crop yields per unit land area. Most commercial agriculture is intensive in one or more ways. Forms that rely heavily on industrial methods are often called industrial agriculture, which is characterised by innovations designed to increase yield. Techniques include planting multiple crops per year, reducing the frequency of fallow years, and improving cultivars. It also involves increased use of fertilizers, plant growth regulators, pesticides, antibiotics for livestock and mechanised agriculture, controlled by increased and more detailed analysis of growing conditions, including weather, soil, water, weeds, and pests. Intensive farms are widespread in developed nations and increasingly prevalent worldwide. Most of the meat, dairy products, eggs, fruits, and vegetables available in supermarkets are produced by such farms. Some intensive farms can use sustainable methods, although this typically necessitates higher inputs of labor or lower yields. Sustainably increasing agricultural productivity, especially on smallholdings, is an important way of decreasing the amount of land needed for farming and slowing environmental degradation through processes like deforestation. Intensive animal farming involves large numbers of animals raised on limited land, for example by rotational grazing, or in the Western world sometimes as concentrated animal feeding operations. These methods increase the yields of food and fiber per acre as compared to extensive animal husbandry; concentrated feed is brought to seldom-moved animals, or with rotational grazing the animals are repeatedly moved to fresh forage. (en)
F
The bundle of rights is a metaphor to explain the complexities of property ownership. Law school professors of introductory property law courses frequently use this conceptualization to describe "full" property ownership as a partition of various entitlements of different stakeholders. The bundle of rights is commonly taught in US first-year law school property classes to explain how a property can simultaneously be "owned" by multiple parties. The term, "bundle of rights," likely came into use during the late 19th century and continued to gain ground thereafter. Prior to that, the idea of property entailed more the owner's dominion over a thing, placing restrictions on others from interfering with the owner's property. "Bundle of rights," however, implies rules specifying, proscribing, or authorizing actions on the part of the owner. Ownership of land is a much more complex proposition than simply acquiring all the rights to it. It is useful to imagine a bundle of rights that can be separated and reassembled. A "bundle of sticks" – in which each stick represents an individual right – is a common analogy made for the bundle of rights. Any property owner possesses a set of "sticks" related directly to the land. For example, perfection of a mechanic's lien takes some, but not all, rights out of the bundle held by the owner. Extinguishing that lien returns those rights or "sticks" to the bundle held by the owner. In the United States (and under common law) the fullest possible title to real estate is called "fee simple absolute." Even the US federal government's ownership of land is restricted in some ways by state property law. (en) +
Fauna is all of the animal life present in a particular region or time. The corresponding term for plants is flora, and for fungi, it is funga. Flora, fauna, funga and other forms of life are collectively referred to as biota. Zoologists and paleontologists use fauna to refer to a typical collection of animals found in a specific time or place, e.g. the "Sonoran Desert fauna" or the "Burgess Shale fauna". Paleontologists sometimes refer to a sequence of faunal stages, which is a series of rocks all containing similar fossils. The study of animals of a particular region is called faunistics. (en) +
Le féminisme est un ensemble de mouvements et d'idées philosophiques ayant pour vocation de définir et de promouvoir l'égalité (politique, économique, culturelle, sociale et juridique) entre les femmes et les hommes en militant pour les droits des femmes dans la société civile et dans la vie privée. Le féminisme a pour objectif d'abolir, dans ces différents domaines, les inégalités dont sont victimes les femmes. Si le terme « féminisme » ne prend son sens actuel qu'à la fin du XIXe siècle sous les plumes d'Alexandre Dumas et d'Hubertine Auclert, les idées de libération et d'émancipation des femmes prennent leurs racines dans le siècle des Lumières et se réclament de mouvements plus anciens ou de combats menés dans d'autres contextes historiques. L’objectif principal de la première vague féministe est que hommes et femmes deviennent égaux devant la loi. Le mouvement féministe a produit une grande diversité d’ et philosophiques. La deuxième vague féministe, qui intervient à la fin des années 1960 avec la naissance du Mouvement de libération des femmes (MLF) et du Women's Lib, a ainsi élaboré plusieurs concepts qui entendent rendre compte de la spécificité du rapport de domination exercé par les hommes sur les femmes. C'est à cette période qu'est reformulé le concept de patriarcat, élaboré celui de sexisme et que l'accent est mis sur la sphère privée comme lieu privilégié de la domination masculine : « le privé est politique ». Les revendications touchant au contrôle de leur corps par les femmes (avortement, contraception) sont placées au premier plan mais, plus largement, c'est à la construction de nouveaux rapports sociaux de sexe qu'appellent les féministes de cette deuxième vague. Dans cette perspective, la notion de « genre » entend « dénaturaliser » les rapports entre les sexes. Sous le nom de troisième vague féministe, on désigne à partir des années 1990, un large ensemble de revendications exprimées par des militantes féministes issues de groupes minoritaires, dans le sillage du Black feminism. (fr) , Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism incorporates the position that society prioritizes the male point of view and that women are treated unjustly in these societies. Efforts to change this include fighting against gender stereotypes and improving educational, professional, and interpersonal opportunities and outcomes for women. Feminist movements have campaigned and continue to campaign for women's rights, including the right to vote, run for public office, work, earn equal pay, own property, receive education, enter contracts, have equal rights within marriage, and maternity leave. Feminists have also worked to ensure access to contraception, legal abortions, and social integration and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment, and domestic violence. Changes in female dress standards and acceptable physical activities for females have often been part of feminist movements. Many scholars consider feminist campaigns to be a main force behind major historical societal changes for women's rights, particularly in the West, where they are near-universally credited with achieving women's suffrage, gender-neutral language, reproductive rights for women (including access to contraceptives and abortion), and the right to enter into contracts and own property. Although feminist advocacy is, and has been, mainly focused on women's rights, some feminists argue for the inclusion of men's liberation within its aims, because they believe that men are also harmed by traditional gender roles. Feminist theory, which emerged from feminist movements, aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived experience; feminist theorists have developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues concerning gender. Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years, representing different viewpoints and political aims. Traditionally, since the 19th century, first-wave liberal feminism that sought political and legal equality through reforms within a liberal democratic framework was contrasted with labour-based proletarian women's movements that over time developed into socialist and Marxist feminism based on class struggle theory. Since the 1960s, both of these traditions are also contrasted with radical feminism that arose from the radical wing of second-wave feminism and that calls for a radical reordering of society to eliminate male supremacy; together liberal, socialist and radical feminism are sometimes called the "Big Three" schools of feminist thought. Since the late 20th century, many newer forms of feminism have emerged. Some forms have been criticized as taking into account only white, middle class, college-educated, heterosexual, or cisgender perspectives. These criticisms have led to the creation of ethnically specific or multicultural forms of feminism, such as black feminism and intersectional feminism. Some feminists have argued that feminism often promotes misandry and the elevation of women's interests above men's, and criticize radical feminist positions as harmful to both men and women. (en)
Un festival est une manifestation à caractère festif, organisée à époque fixe et récurrente annuellement, autour d'une activité liée au spectacle, aux arts, aux loisirs, d'une durée de un ou plusieurs jours. (fr) +, A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, or eid. A festival constitutes typical cases of glocalization, as well as the high culture-low culture interrelationship. Next to religion and folklore, a significant origin is agricultural. Food is such a vital resource that many festivals are associated with harvest time. Religious commemoration and thanksgiving for good harvests are blended in events that take place in autumn, such as Halloween in the northern hemisphere and Easter in the southern. Festivals often serve to fulfill specific communal purposes, especially in regard to commemoration or thanking to the gods, goddesses or saints: they are called patronal festivals. They may also provide entertainment, which was particularly important to local communities before the advent of mass-produced entertainment. Festivals that focus on cultural or ethnic topics also seek to inform community members of their traditions; the involvement of elders sharing stories and experience provides a means for unity among families. Attendants of festivals are often motivated by a desire for escapism, socialization and camaraderie; the practice has been seen as a means of creating geographical connection, belonging and adaptability. (en) +
A community land trust (CLT) is a nonprofit corporation that holds land on behalf of a place-based community, while serving as the long-term steward for affordable housing, community gardens, civic buildings, commercial spaces and other community assets on behalf of a community. CLTs balance the needs of individuals who want security of tenure in occupying and using land and housing, with the needs of the surrounding community, striving to secure a variety of social purposes such as maintaining the affordability of local housing, preventing the displacement of vulnerable residents, and promoting economic and racial inclusion. Across the world, there is enormous diversity among CLTs in the ways that real property is owned, used, and operated and the ways that the CLT itself is guided and governed by people living on and around a CLT’s land. (en) +, Un Community Land Trust, appelé en droit français organisme foncier solidaire, est une personne morale à but non lucratif ayant pour objet de détenir la propriété de terrains sur lesquels des logements sont bâtis, et ce afin que ces derniers restent perpétuellement à coût abordable, et nettement inférieurs au prix du marché. (fr) +
La finance recouvre un domaine d'activité — celui du financement — qui consiste à fournir l'argent nécessaire à la réalisation d'une opération économique. Ce domaine concerne aussi bien les individus, les ménages que les entreprises publiques ou privées, mais aussi les États. La recherche de financement obéit à deux types d'objectifs suivant le volume initial de capital :
* à niveau de capital restreint, on cherche à obtenir des capitaux nécessaires et suffisants pour entreprendre, maintenir ou développer une activité ;
* à niveau de capital avéré, l'objectif est de trouver les placements les plus pertinents en performance et en sécurité en fonction de la valeur temps de l'argent. Le mot « finance » peut également désigner :
* soit les techniques qui permettent de façon raisonnée d'obtenir et de placer des capitaux ;
* soit les agents économiques ou les institutions qui recherchent des capitaux disponibles ou souhaitent en placer (soit une définition liminaire qui serait : acheter ou vendre de l'argent). Pour se financer, un agent économique (une organisation privée ou publique, ou un particulier) peut procéder :
* par autofinancement, c'est-à-dire en utilisant ses bénéfices antérieurs ou ses réserves financières disponibles ;
* par financement direct en faisant appel au marché financier (émission d'actions ou d'obligations) ;
* par financement indirect ou intermédié en ayant recours au crédit bancaire. (fr) +, Finance is the study and discipline of money, currency and capital assets. It is related to, but not synonymous with economics, the study of production, distribution, and consumption of money, assets, goods and services (the discipline of financial economics bridges the two).Finance activities take place in financial systems at various scopes, thus the field can be roughly divided into personal, corporate, and public finance. In a financial system, assets are bought, sold, or traded as financial instruments, such as currencies, loans, bonds, shares, stocks, options, futures, etc. Assets can also be banked, invested, and insured to maximize value and minimize loss. In practice, risks are always present in any financial action and entities. A broad range of subfields within finance exist due to its wide scope. Asset, money, risk and investment management aim to maximize value and minimize volatility. Financial analysis is viability, stability, and profitability assessment of an action or entity. In some cases, theories in finance can be tested using the scientific method, covered by experimental finance. Some fields are multidisciplinary, such as mathematical finance, financial law, financial economics, financial engineering and financial technology. These fields are the foundation of business and accounting. The early history of finance parallels the early history of money, which is prehistoric. Ancient and medieval civilizations incorporated basic functions of finance, such as banking, trading and accounting, into their economies. In the late 19th century, the global financial system was formed. It was in the middle of the 20th century that finance emerged as a distinct academic discipline, separate from economics. (The first academic journal, The Journal of Finance, began publication in 1946.) The earliest doctoral programs in finance were established in the 1960s and 1970s.Finance is widely studied at the undergraduate and masters level. (en) +
A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines a forest as, "Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban use." Using this definition, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 (FRA 2020) found that forests covered 4.06 billion hectares (10.0 billion acres; 40.6 million square kilometres; 15.7 million square miles), or approximately 31 percent of the world's land area in 2020. Forests are the predominant terrestrial ecosystem of Earth, and are found around the globe. More than half of the world's forests are found in only five countries (Brazil, Canada, China, Russia, and the United States). The largest share of forests (45 percent) are in the tropical latitudes, followed by those in the boreal, temperate, and subtropic domains. Forests account for 75% of the gross primary production of the Earth's biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earth's plant biomass. Net primary production is estimated at 21.9 gigatonnes of biomass per year for tropical forests, 8.1 for temperate forests, and 2.6 for boreal forests. Forests at different latitudes and elevations, and with different precipitation and evapotranspiration form distinctly different biomes: boreal forests around the North Pole, tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests around the Equator, and temperate forests at the middle latitudes. Areas at higher elevations tend to support forests similar to those at higher latitudes, and the amount of precipitation also affects forest composition. Almost half the forest area (49 percent) is relatively intact, while 9 percent is found in fragments with little or no connectivity. Tropical rainforests and boreal coniferous forests are the least fragmented, whereas subtropical dry forests and temperate oceanic forests are among the most fragmented. Roughly 80 percent of the world's forest area is found in patches larger than 1 million hectares (2.5 million acres). The remaining 20 percent is located in more than 34 million patches around the world – the vast majority less than 1,000 hectares (2,500 acres) in size. Human society and forests influence each other in both positive and negative ways. Forests provide ecosystem services to humans and serve as tourist attractions. Forests can also affect people's health. Human activities, including unsustainable use of forest resources, can negatively affect forest ecosystems. (en)
Cooperating Associations, also known as interpretive associations or natural history associations, support the interpretive, educational and scientific programs and services of governmental land management agencies such as the National Park Service, USDA Forest Service, US Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Land Management, US Army Corps of Engineers, or state park departments. Associations assist in the production of site-specific products, distribute educational and scientific publications produced by agencies, donate materials for use in interpretive programs and exhibits, and work to secure grants and funding. This is accomplished through bookstore sales, membership support, publication and product development, research funding, and other educational programs and activities. They must hold a federally tax-exempt, not-for-profit status under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. (en) +
Le fructus (du latin signifiant « fruit ») est le droit de disposer des fruits d'une chose, parce qu'on en est le propriétaire ou l'usufruitier. Il se distingue :
* de l'usus qui est le droit d'user d'une chose,
* de l'abusus qui est le droit de disposer d'une chose, et notamment de l'aliéner. Ces trois droits composent le droit de propriété. L'association de l'usus et du fructus compose le droit d'utiliser une chose et de jouir de ses fruits (« usufruit »). Le fructus est un droit réel en ce sens qu'il s'exerce sur une chose, par opposition aux droits personnels qui s'exercent à l'encontre d'une personne (créance). (fr) +, Fructus (Latin for "fruits") is a legal term used in Roman law to describe goods naturally created by other property. In the most traditional understanding, this encompasses literal fruit of various plants, but also goods taken from animals such as milk or wool. There is some debate whether profits arising from other legal actions, such as loan interest, can be considered fructus – ancient jurisprudents usually strayed from such interpretations, but did argue to treat such profits in analogical ways. (en) +
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En botanique, la garrigue (du provençal garriga) est une formation végétale caractéristique des régions méditerranéennes, proche du maquis. Selon l'École agronomique de Montpellier, la garrigue est au calcaire ce que le maquis est aux terrains siliceux. L'École agronomique de Toulouse associe le terme de garrigue à l'étagement de végétation. Garrigue et maquis peuvent être réunis sous un même vocable : le matorral qui constitue une sère d'une succession régressive due au passage récurrent du feu, correspondant généralement à un écosystème forestier dégradé, parfois à un réembroussaillement d'anciennes pâtures ou de terres cultivées laissées à l'abandon. (fr) +, Garrigue or garigue (/ɡəˈriːɡ/ gə-REEG), also known as phrygana (Greek: φρύγανα [ˈfriɣana], n. pl.), is a type of low scrubland ecoregion and plant community in the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome. It is found on limestone soils in southern France and around the Mediterranean Basin, generally near the seacoast where the moderated Mediterranean climate provides annual summer drought. It is an anthropogenic degradation and succession form of former evergreen oak forests that existed until 4500 years BC. The term has also found its way into haute cuisine, suggestive of the resinous flavours of a garrigue shrubland. (en) +, La garriga es un tipo de ecorregión compuesta por formaciones vegetales que surgen en los biomas de los bosques mediterráneos. Estas formaciones son el resultado de la degradación del chaparral y otras comunidades vegetales como bosques de quercineas provocadas por la acción del hombre: el sobrepastoreo y el fuego.Es un hábitat degradado que en ocasiones sustituye a los encinares y otros robledales quemados o talados. El nombre deriva de la palabra francesa tomada del occitano garric, que en la lengua de Oc designa a una de las especies vegetales más comunes: Quercus coccifera, llamado Chêne des garrigues (roble de garriga) en francés. La garriga cubre los sustratos calizos y puede también colonizar afloramientos rocosos. El término chaparral proviene de chaparro: mata de roble enano de muchas ramas y poca altura, que a su vez viene del vasco txaparro, con el mismo significado. En España existe una comarca en la provincia catalana de Lérida denominada Las Garrigas, cuyo nombre hace referencia a esta formación. (es) +
Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to femininity and masculinity and differentiating between them. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles) and gender identity. Most cultures use a gender binary, in which gender is divided into two categories, and people are considered part of one or the other (boys/men and girls/women); those who are outside these groups may fall under the umbrella term non-binary. Some societies have specific genders besides "man" and "woman", such as the hijras of South Asia; these are often referred to as third genders (and fourth genders, etc.). Most scholars agree that gender is a central characteristic for social organization. Sexologist John Money is often regarded as the first to introduce a terminological distinction between biological sex and gender role (which, as originally defined, includes the concepts of both gender role and what would later become known as gender identity) in 1955 although Madison Bentley had already in 1945 defined gender as the "socialized obverse of sex", and Simone de Beauvoir's 1949 book The Second Sex has been interpreted as the beginning of the distinction between sex and gender in feminist theory. Before Money's work, it was uncommon to use the word gender to refer to anything but grammatical categories. However, Money's meaning of the word did not become widespread until the 1970s, when feminist theory embraced the concept of a distinction between biological sex and the social construct of gender. Most contemporary social scientists, behavioral scientists and biologists, many legal systems and government bodies, and intergovernmental agencies such as the WHO, make a distinction between gender and sex. In other contexts, the term gender is used to replace sex without representing a clear conceptual difference. For instance, in non-human animal research, gender is commonly used to refer to the biological sex of the animals. This change in the meaning of gender can be traced to the 1980s. In 1993, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) started to use gender instead of sex to avoid confusion with sexual intercourse. Later, in 2011, the FDA reversed its position and began using sex as the biological classification and gender as "a person's self-representation as male or female, or how that person is responded to by social institutions based on the individual's gender presentation." The social sciences have a branch devoted to gender studies. Other sciences, such as sexology and neuroscience, are also interested in the subject. The social sciences sometimes approach gender as a social construct, and gender studies particularly do, while research in the natural sciences investigates whether biological differences in females and males influence the development of gender in humans; both inform the debate about how far biological differences influence the formation of gender identity and gendered behavior. In some English literature, there is also a trichotomy between biological sex, psychological gender, and social gender role. This framework first appeared in a feminist paper on transsexualism in 1978. (en)
La gentrification, mot issu de l'anglais gentrification — en français québécois embourgeoisement ou, dans la presse, boboïsation (du terme bobo) — désigne « les transformations de quartiers populaires dues à l’arrivée de catégories sociales plus favorisées qui réhabilitent certains logements et importent des modes de vie et de consommation différents ». Cette expression est employée pour la première fois par la sociologue Ruth Glass dans son ouvrage London: Aspects of Change, étudiant dans les années 1960 les processus par lesquels les populations les moins favorisées de Londres étaient chassées de certains quartiers tandis que s'y créaient de véritables ghettos de la classe aisée. Le concept a par la suite été repris, développé et approfondi partout au Royaume-Uni ainsi qu'aux États-Unis. Ce n'est qu'au début des années 2000 que le terme « gentrification » apparaît dans les milieux académiques français. Le processus de gentrification résulte de l’accroissement de l’intérêt porté à un certain espace. Les premiers « gentrifieurs » peuvent appartenir à des communautés d’artistes aux faibles revenus, ce qui contribue à l’attractivité du quartier. Ensuite, diverses étapes de hausse des investissements dans le secteur immobilier par les acteurs privés et publics conduisent au développement économique du quartier, à une augmentation de l’attractivité des commerces et une baisse du taux de criminalité. Par ailleurs, la gentrification peut entraîner des migrations de population. (fr) +, Gentrification is the process of changing the character of a neighborhood through the influx of more affluent residents and businesses. It is a common and controversial topic in urban politics and planning. Gentrification often increases the economic value of a neighborhood, but the resulting demographic displacement may itself become a major social issue. Gentrification often sees a shift in a neighborhood's racial or ethnic composition and average household income as housing and businesses become more expensive and resources that had not been previously accessible are extended and improved. The gentrification process is typically the result of increasing attraction to an area by people with higher incomes spilling over from neighboring cities, towns, or neighborhoods. Further steps are increased investments in a community and the related infrastructure by real estate development businesses, local government, or community activists and resulting economic development, increased attraction of business, and lower crime rates. In addition to these potential benefits, gentrification can lead to population migration and displacement. In extreme cases, gentrification can be brought on by a prosperity bomb. However, some view the fear of displacement, which dominates the debate about gentrification, as hindering discussion about genuine progressive approaches to distribute the benefits of urban redevelopment strategies. (en) +
La gestion de l'eau est l'activité qui consiste à protéger, planifier, développer, distribuer et gérer l'utilisation optimale des ressources en eau et des milieux aquatiques, des points de vue qualitatif et quantitatif. Ceci inclut la gestion des risques « quantitatifs » et évènements extrêmes de sécheresse et pénurie, d'inondations et de crues, érosion des sols et du trait de côte, d', notamment liés au changement climatique, à la déforestation et à la destruction des zones humides. S'y ajoute les questions de pollutions telluriques des zones côtières et des mers et océans, par les activités humaines, essentiellement charriées par les fleuves. Axée sur le développement des ressources en eau depuis les années 1970, cette activité se tourne sur leur gestion dans les années 1980 et sur la gestion intégrée des ressources en eau dans les années 1990, cette évolution traduisant la mobilisation du secteur public et privé en faveur du développement durable. En 2017, au moins 196 villes mondiales, soit 1,2 milliard de personnes (20 % de la population) sont considérées comme confrontées à des problèmes de gestion de l’eau selon le CDP (ex. : Miami, Pittsburgh (États-Unis) et Johannesburg (Afrique du Sud), qui dont confrontées à un risque « extrême » d’inondations. Les actions de gestion sont de court, moyen et long termes et pour certaines doivent concerner tout un bassin versant. Elles concernent donc de nombreux acteurs (dont collectivités publiques, entreprises agriculteurs et habitants), entités décisionnelles réunies sous le nom de gouvernance de l'eau. Dans un contexte de marchandisation l'eau est de plus en plus perçue comme une ressource naturelle précieuse et un bien commun à partager avec les autres êtres vivants de la planète ; une ressource limitée et inégalement répartie, à utiliser de manière économe et à dépolluer avant de la rendre au milieu naturel. (fr) +, La gestión del agua o la gestión de recursos hídricos es la actividad de planificar, desarrollar, distribuir y dirigir el uso óptimo de los recursos hídricos. Es un subconjunto de la . A veces se la denomina "gestión sostenible de recursos hídricos", pero es una redundancia, porque toda gestión óptima es necesariamente sostenible. El agua es esencial para la supervivencia de los seres vivos. La gestión del agua deberá continuar adaptándose a los cambios actuales y futuros en la existencia y asignación de estos recursos. Con la creciente incertidumbre por el calentamiento mundial y con los impactos a largo plazo de las acciones de gestión, la toma de decisiones será aún más difícil. Es probable que el calentamiento mundial lleve a situaciones aún no experimentadas. En consecuencia se buscan estrategias alternativas de gestión para evitar contratiempos en la asignación de recursos hídricos. Idealmente, la planificación de los recursos hídricos debe considerar todas las demandas de agua (sanitaria, agricultura, industria, medio ambiente), que compiten entre sí por un recurso escaso. La planificación busca repartir equitativamente el agua para satisfacer todas las demandas. Al igual que en otros casos de gestión de recursos, esto rara vez resulta posible en la práctica. Uno de las mayores preocupaciones sobre los recursos hídricos es la sostenibilidad de su asignación actual y futura. Cuando el agua deviene más escasa, crece enormemente la importancia de cómo se gestiona. Encontrar un equilibrio entre lo que necesitan las personas y lo que necesita el medio ambiente es un paso importante en la sostenibilidad de los recursos hídricos. (es) +, Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful for humans, for example as a source of drinking water supply or irrigation water. 97% of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air. Natural sources of fresh water include surface water, under river flow, groundwater and frozen water. Artificial sources of fresh water can include treated wastewater (wastewater reuse) and desalinated seawater. Human uses of water resources include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Water resources are under threat from water scarcity, water pollution, water conflict and climate change. Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of groundwater is steadily decreasing, with depletion occurring most prominently in Asia, South America and North America, although it is still unclear how much natural renewal balances this usage, and whether ecosystems are threatened. The framework for allocating water resources to water users (where such a framework exists) is known as water rights. (en) +
Sustainable management takes the concepts from sustainability and synthesizes them with the concepts of management. Sustainability has three branches: the environment, the needs of present and future generations, and the economy. Using these branches, it creates the ability of a system to thrive by maintaining economic viability and also nourishing the needs of the present and future generations by limiting resource depletion. From this definition, sustainable management has been created to be defined as the application of sustainable practices in the categories of businesses, agriculture, society, environment, and personal life by managing them in a way that will benefit current generations and future generations. Sustainable management is needed because it is an important part of the ability to successfully maintain the quality of life on our planet. Sustainable management can be applied to all aspects of our lives. For example, the practices of a business should be sustainable if they wish to stay in businesses, because if the business is unsustainable, then by the definition of sustainability they will cease to be able to be in competition. Communities are in a need of sustainable management, because if the community is to prosper, then the management must be sustainable. Forest and natural resources need to have sustainable management if they are to be able to be continually used by our generation and future generations. Our personal lives also need to be managed sustainably. This can be by making decisions that will help sustain our immediate surroundings and environment, or it can be by managing our emotional and physical well-being. Sustainable management can be applied to many things, as it can be applied as a literal and an abstract concept. Meaning, depending on what they are applied to the meaning of what it is can change. (en) +
Gleaning is the act of collecting leftover crops from farmers' fields after they have been commercially harvested or on fields where it is not economically profitable to harvest. It is a practice described in the Hebrew Bible that became a legally enforced entitlement of the poor in a number of Christian kingdoms. Modern day "dumpster diving", when done for food or culinary ingredients, is seen as a similar form of food recovery. Gleaning is also still used today to provide nutritious harvested foods for those in need. It is modernly used due to a need for a national network to aid food recovery organizations in the United States. This is called the National Gleaning Project which was started by the at Vermont Law and Graduate School to aid those less fortunate much like the old Christian Kingdoms. (en) +
Local government is a generic term for the lowest tiers of public administration within a particular sovereign state. This particular usage of the word government refers specifically to a level of administration that is both geographically-localised and has limited powers. While in some countries, "government" is normally reserved purely for a national administration (government) (which may be known as a central government or federal government), the term local government is always used specifically in contrast to national government – as well as, in many cases, the activities of sub-national, first-level administrative divisions (which are generally known by names such as cantons, provinces, states, oblasts, or regions). Local governments generally act only within powers specifically delegated to them by law and/or directives of a higher level of government. In federal states, local government generally comprises a third or fourth tier of government, whereas in unitary states, local government usually occupies the second or third tier of government. The question of municipal autonomy is a key question of public administration and governance. Local elections are held in many countries. The institutions of local government vary greatly between countries, and even where similar arrangements exist, the terminology often varies. Common designated names for local government entities include state, province, region, canton, department, county, prefecture, district, city, township, town, borough, parish, municipality, shire, village, ward, local service district and local government area. (en) +
H
A housing cooperative, or housing co-op, is a legal entity, usually a cooperative or a corporation, which owns real estate, consisting of one or more residential buildings; it is one type of housing tenure. Housing cooperatives are a distinctive form of home ownership that have many characteristics that differ from other residential arrangements such as single family home ownership, condominiums and renting. The corporation is membership based, with membership granted by way of a share purchase in the cooperative. Each shareholder in the legal entity is granted the right to occupy one housing unit. A primary advantage of the housing cooperative is the pooling of the members' resources so that their buying power is leveraged; thus lowering the cost per member in all the services and products associated with home ownership. Another key element in some forms of housing cooperatives is that the members, through their elected representatives, screen and select who may live in the cooperative, unlike any other form of home ownership. Housing cooperatives fall into two general tenure categories: non-ownership (referred to as non-equity or continuing) and ownership (referred to as equity or strata). In non-equity cooperatives, occupancy rights are sometimes granted subject to an occupancy agreement, which is similar to a lease. In equity cooperatives, occupancy rights are sometimes granted by way of the purchase agreements and legal instruments registered on the title. The corporation's articles of incorporation and bylaws as well as occupancy agreement specifies the cooperative's rules. The word cooperative is also used to describe a non-share capital co-op model in which fee-paying members obtain the right to occupy a bedroom and share the communal resources of a house owned by a cooperative organization. Such is the case with student cooperatives in some college and university communities across the United States. (en) +
In Internet activism, hacktivism, or hactivism (a portmanteau of hack and activism), is the use of computer-based techniques such as hacking as a form of civil disobedience to promote a political agenda or social change. With roots in hacker culture and hacker ethics, its ends are often related to free speech, human rights, or freedom of information movements. Hacktivist activities span many political ideals and issues. Freenet, a peer-to-peer platform for censorship-resistant communication, is a prime example of translating political thought and freedom of speech into code. Hacking as a form of activism can be carried out through a network of activists, such as Anonymous and WikiLeaks, or through a singular activist, working in collaboration toward common goals without an overarching authority figure. "Hacktivism" is a controversial term with several meanings. The word was coined to characterize electronic direct action as working toward social change by combining programming skills with critical thinking. But just as hack can sometimes mean cyber crime, hacktivism can be used to mean activism that is malicious, destructive, and undermining the security of the Internet as a technical, economic, and political platform. According to the United States 2020-2022 Counterintelligence Strategy, in addition to state adversaries and transnational criminal organizations, "ideologically motivated entities such as hacktivists, leaktivists, and public disclosure organizations, also pose significant threats". (en) +
Hospitality is the relationship between a guest and a host, wherein the host receives the guest with some amount of goodwill, including the reception and entertainment of guests, visitors, or strangers. Louis, chevalier de Jaucourt describes hospitality in the Encyclopédie as the virtue of a great soul that cares for the whole universe through the ties of humanity. Hospitality is also the way people treat others, that is, the service of welcoming and receiving guests for example in hotels. Hospitality plays a fundamental role to augment or decrease the volume of sales of an organization. Hospitality ethics is a discipline that studies this usage of hospitality. (en) +
A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment with specialized health science and auxiliary healthcare staff and medical equipment. The best-known type of hospital is the general hospital, which typically has an emergency department to treat urgent health problems ranging from fire and accident victims to a sudden illness. A district hospital typically is the major health care facility in its region, with many beds for intensive care and additional beds for patients who need long-term care. Specialized hospitals include trauma centers, rehabilitation hospitals, children's hospitals, seniors' (geriatric) hospitals, and hospitals for dealing with specific medical needs such as psychiatric treatment (see psychiatric hospital) and certain disease categories. Specialized hospitals can help reduce health care costs compared to general hospitals. Hospitals are classified as general, specialty, or government depending on the sources of income received. A teaching hospital combines assistance to people with teaching to health science students and auxiliary healthcare students. A health science facility smaller than a hospital is generally called a clinic. Hospitals have a range of departments (e.g. surgery and urgent care) and specialist units such as cardiology. Some hospitals have outpatient departments and some have chronic treatment units. Common support units include a pharmacy, pathology, and radiology. Hospitals are typically funded by public funding, health organisations (for-profit or nonprofit), health insurance companies, or charities, including direct charitable donations. Historically, hospitals were often founded and funded by religious orders, or by charitable individuals and leaders. Currently, hospitals are largely staffed by professional physicians, surgeons, nurses, and allied health practitioners, whereas in the past, this work was usually performed by the members of founding religious orders or by volunteers. However, there are various Catholic religious orders, such as the Alexians and the Bon Secours Sisters that still focus on hospital ministry in the late 1990s, as well as several other Christian denominations, including the Methodists and Lutherans, which run hospitals. In accordance with the original meaning of the word, hospitals were original "places of hospitality", and this meaning is still preserved in the names of some institutions such as the Royal Hospital Chelsea, established in 1681 as a retirement and nursing home for veteran soldiers. (en)
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L'impact environnemental est l'ensemble des changements qualitatifs, quantitatifs et fonctionnels de l'environnement (négatifs ou positifs) engendrés par un projet, un processus, un procédé, un ou des organismes, ou un ou des produits, de sa conception à sa fin de vie. L'étude de l'impact environnemental est un outil utilisé par la norme ISO 14001 et dans l'analyse du cycle de vie. Des études d'impacts environnementales sur les milieux biophysique et humain sont requises pour une majorité de projets. Elles sont nécessaires et obligatoires pour les projets d'envergure et sont habituellement assorties de mesures d'atténuation et/ou de mitigation et/ou de mise en valeur et/ou de formules compensatoires et/ou de mesures de conservation ou de restauration. (fr) +, Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as quality of air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and pollution. It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable. Environmental concerns can be defined as the negative effects of any human activity on the environment. The biological as well as the physical features of the environment are included. Some of the primary environmental challenges that are causing great worry are air pollution, water pollution, natural environment pollution, rubbish pollution, and so on.[2] Environmental degradation is one of the ten threats officially cautioned by the high-level PaneI on Threats, Challenges and Change of the United Nations. The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines environmental degradation as "the reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives, and needs". Environmental degradation comes in many types. When natural habitats are destroyed or natural resources are depleted, the environment is degraded. Efforts to counteract this problem include environmental protection and environmental resources management. Mismanagement that leads to degradation can also lead to environmental conflict where communities organize in opposition to the forces that mismanaged the environment. (en) +
News is information about current events. This may be provided through many different media: word of mouth, printing, postal systems, broadcasting, electronic communication, or through the testimony of observers and witnesses to events. News is sometimes called "hard news" to differentiate it from soft media. Common topics for news reports include war, government, politics, education, health, the environment, economy, business, fashion, entertainment, and sport, as well as quirky or unusual events. Government proclamations, concerning royal ceremonies, laws, taxes, public health, and criminals, have been dubbed news since ancient times. Technological and social developments, often driven by government communication and espionage networks, have increased the speed with which news can spread, as well as influenced its content. Throughout history, people have transported new information through oral means. Having developed in China over centuries, newspapers became established in Europe during the early modern period. In the 20th century, radio and television became an important means of transmitting news. Whilst in the 21st, the internet has also begun to play a similar role. (en) +
L'innovation est la recherche constante d'améliorations de l'existant, par contraste avec l'invention, qui vise à créer du nouveau. Dans le domaine économique, l'innovation se traduit par la conception d'un nouveau produit, service, processus de fabrication ou d'organisation pouvant être directement mis en œuvre dans l'appareil productif et répondant aux besoins du consommateur. Elle se distingue ainsi de l'invention ou de la découverte par le fait qu'elle peut être immédiatement mise en œuvre par les entreprises, dans le but d'obtenir un avantage compétitif. Dans le domaine de l'ingénierie, l’innovation est un cœur de métier. Elle est la capacité qui permet de trouver des solutions à des problèmes complexes d'ordre technique, financier, organisationnel ou méthodique et qui par leur complexité ne peuvent pas s’obtenir simplement en appliquant des formules préétablies. Il s'agit de trouver des solutions, de mettre de nouvelles idées en œuvre d’un point de vue pratique en réponse à la complexité de projets de toute taille que réalisent les ingénieurs. De la conception à la mise sur le marché, l'innovation fait ainsi appel à des processus aux résultats incertains qui s'appuient sur des outils de management appropriés. Son utilisation en tant que buzzword en fait un terme très polysémique en pratique. On trouve ainsi de nombreuses expressions composites, dont innovation ouverte, innovation participative, innovation frugale, innovation inclusive, innovation incrémentale, innovation radicale, innovation révolutionnaire, innovation évolutive, innovation associative, innovation spasmodique. (fr) +, Innovation is the practical implementation of ideas that result in the introduction of new goods or services or improvement in offering goods or services. ISO TC 279 in the standard ISO 56000:2020 defines innovation as "a new or changed entity realizing or redistributing value". Others have different definitions; a common element in the definitions is a focus on newness, improvement, and spread of ideas or technologies. Innovation often takes place through the development of more-effective products, processes, services, technologies, art worksor business models that innovators make available to markets, governments and society. Innovation is related to, but not the same as, invention: innovation is more apt to involve the practical implementation of an invention (i.e. new / improved ability) to make a meaningful impact in a market or society, and not all innovations require a new invention. Technical innovation often manifests itself via the engineering process when the problem being solved is of a technical or scientific nature. The opposite of innovation is exnovation. (en) +
Open innovation is a term used to promote an information age mindset toward innovation that runs counter to the secrecy and silo mentality of traditional corporate research labs. The benefits and driving forces behind increased openness have been noted and discussed as far back as the 1960s, especially as it pertains to interfirm cooperation in R&D. Use of the term 'open innovation' in reference to the increasing embrace of external cooperation in a complex world has been promoted in particular by Henry Chesbrough, adjunct professor and faculty director of the Center for Open Innovation of the Haas School of Business at the University of California, and Maire Tecnimont Chair of Open Innovation at Luiss. The term was originally referred to as "a paradigm that assumes that firms can and should use external ideas as well as internal ideas, and internal and external paths to market, as the firms look to advance their technology". More recently, it is defined as "a distributed innovation process based on purposively managed knowledge flows across organizational boundaries, using pecuniary and non-pecuniary mechanisms in line with the organization's business model". This more recent definition acknowledges that open innovation is not solely firm-centric: it also includes creative consumers and communities of user innovators. The boundaries between a firm and its environment have become more permeable; innovations can easily transfer inward and outward between firms and other firms and between firms and creative consumers, resulting in impacts at the level of the consumer, the firm, an industry, and society. Because innovations tend to be produced by outsiders and founders in startups, rather than existing organizations, the central idea behind open innovation is that, in a world of widely distributed knowledge, companies cannot afford to rely entirely on their own research, but should instead buy or license processes or inventions (i.e. patents) from other companies. This is termed inbound open innovation. In addition, internal inventions not being used in a firm's business should be taken outside the company (e.g. through licensing, joint ventures or spin-offs). This is called outbound open innovation. The open innovation paradigm can be interpreted to go beyond just using external sources of innovation such as customers, rival companies, and academic institutions, and can be as much a change in the use, management, and employment of intellectual property as it is in the technical and research driven generation of intellectual property. In this sense, it is understood as the systematic encouragement and exploration of a wide range of internal and external sources for innovative opportunities, the integration of this exploration with firm capabilities and resources, and the exploitation of these opportunities through multiple channels. In addition, as open innovation explores a wide range of internal and external sources, it could be not just analyzed in the level of company, but also it can be analyzed at inter-organizational level, intra-organizational level, extra-organizational and at industrial, regional and society (Bogers et al., 2017). (en)
Social innovations are new social practices that aim to meet social needs in a better way than the existing solutions, resulting from - for example - working conditions, education, community development or health. These ideas are created with the goal of extending and strengthening civil society. Social innovation includes the social processes of innovation, such as open source methods and techniques and also the innovations which have a social purpose—like activism, virtual volunteering, microcredit, or distance learning. There are many definitions of social innovation, however, they usually include the broad criteria about social objectives, social interaction between actors or actor diversity, social outputs, and innovativeness (The innovation should be at least ”new” to the beneficiaries it targets, but it does not have to be new to the world). Different definitions include different combinations and different number of these criteria (e.g. EU is using definition stressing out social objectives and actors interaction). Transformative social innovation not only introduces new approaches to seemingly intractable problems, but is successful in changing the social institutions that created the problem in the first place. According to Herrero de Egaña B., social innovation is defined as "new or novel ways that society has to deal with Relevant Social Challenges (RSCh), that are more effective, efficient and sustainable or that generate greater impact than the previous ones and that contribute to making it stronger and more articulated". Prominent innovators associated with the term include Pakistani Akhter Hameed Khan, Bangladeshi Muhammad Yunus, the founder of Grameen Bank which pioneered the concept of microcredit for supporting innovations in many developing countries such as Asia, Africa and Latin America, and inspired programs like the Jindal Centre for Social Innovation & Entrepreneurship and Infolady Social Entrepreneurship Programme of Dnet (A Social Enterprise). (en)
Collective intelligence (CI) is shared or group intelligence (GI) that emerges from the collaboration, collective efforts, and competition of many individuals and appears in consensus decision making. The term appears in sociobiology, political science and in context of mass peer review and crowdsourcing applications. It may involve consensus, social capital and formalisms such as voting systems, social media and other means of quantifying mass activity. Collective IQ is a measure of collective intelligence, although it is often used interchangeably with the term collective intelligence. Collective intelligence has also been attributed to bacteria and animals. It can be understood as an emergent property from the synergies among: 1.
* data-information-knowledge 2.
* software-hardware 3.
* individuals (those with new insights as well as recognized authorities) that continually learns from feedback to produce just-in-time knowledge for better decisions than these three elements acting alone Or it can be more narrowly understood as an emergent property between people and ways of processing information. This notion of collective intelligence is referred to as "symbiotic intelligence" by Norman Lee Johnson. The concept is used in sociology, business, computer science and mass communications: it also appears in science fiction. Pierre Lévy defines collective intelligence as, "It is a form of universally distributed intelligence, constantly enhanced, coordinated in real time, and resulting in the effective mobilization of skills. I'll add the following indispensable characteristic to this definition: The basis and goal of collective intelligence is mutual recognition and enrichment of individuals rather than the cult of fetishized or hypostatized communities." According to researchers Pierre Lévy and Derrick de Kerckhove, it refers to capacity of networked ICTs (Information communication technologies) to enhance the collective pool of social knowledge by simultaneously expanding the extent of human interactions. A broader definition was provided by Geoff Mulgan in a series of lectures and reports from 2006 onwards and in the book Big Mind which proposed a framework for analysing any thinking system, including both human and machine intelligence, in terms of functional elements (observation, prediction, creativity, judgement etc.), learning loops and forms of organisation. The aim was to provide a way to diagnose, and improve, the collective intelligence of a city, business, NGO or parliament. Collective intelligence strongly contributes to the shift of knowledge and power from the individual to the collective. According to Eric S. Raymond in 1998 and JC Herz in 2005, open source intelligence will eventually generate superior outcomes to knowledge generated by proprietary software developed within corporations. Media theorist Henry Jenkins sees collective intelligence as an 'alternative source of media power', related to convergence culture. He draws attention to education and the way people are learning to participate in knowledge cultures outside formal learning settings. Henry Jenkins criticizes schools which promote 'autonomous problem solvers and self-contained learners' while remaining hostile to learning through the means of collective intelligence. Both Pierre Lévy and Henry Jenkins support the claim that collective intelligence is important for democratization, as it is interlinked with knowledge-based culture and sustained by collective idea sharing, and thus contributes to a better understanding of diverse society. Similar to the g factor (g) for general individual intelligence, a new scientific understanding of collective intelligence aims to extract a general collective intelligence factor c factor for groups indicating a group's ability to perform a wide range of tasks. Definition, operationalization and statistical methods are derived from g. Similarly as g is highly interrelated with the concept of IQ, this measurement of collective intelligence can be interpreted as intelligence quotient for groups (Group-IQ) even though the score is not a quotient per se. Causes for c and predictive validity are investigated as well. Writers who have influenced the idea of collective intelligence include Francis Galton, Douglas Hofstadter (1979), Peter Russell (1983), Tom Atlee (1993), Pierre Lévy (1994), Howard Bloom (1995), Francis Heylighen (1995), Douglas Engelbart, Louis Rosenberg, Cliff Joslyn, Ron Dembo, (2003), and Geoff Mulgan. (en)
The Internet (or internet) is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a network of networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing. The origins of the Internet date back to the development of packet switching and research commissioned by the United States Department of Defense in the 1960s to enable time-sharing of computers. The primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1970s. The funding of the National Science Foundation Network as a new backbone in the 1980s, as well as private funding for other commercial extensions, led to worldwide participation in the development of new networking technologies, and the merger of many networks. The linking of commercial networks and enterprises by the early 1990s marked the beginning of the transition to the modern Internet, and generated a sustained exponential growth as generations of institutional, personal, and mobile computers were connected to the network. Although the Internet was widely used by academia in the 1980s, commercialization incorporated its services and technologies into virtually every aspect of modern life. Most traditional communication media, including telephone, radio, television, paper mail and newspapers are reshaped, redefined, or even bypassed by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as email, Internet telephone, Internet television, online music, digital newspapers, and video streaming websites. Newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking services. Online shopping has grown exponentially for major retailers, small businesses, and entrepreneurs, as it enables firms to extend their "brick and mortar" presence to serve a larger market or even sell goods and services entirely online. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries. The Internet has no single centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage; each constituent network sets its own policies. The overreaching definitions of the two principal name spaces in the Internet, the Internet Protocol address (IP address) space and the Domain Name System (DNS), are directed by a maintainer organization, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). The technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise. In November 2006, the Internet was included on USA Today's list of New Seven Wonders. (en)
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Le jardin communautaire, partagé, associatif ou encore collectif, est un jardin rural ou urbain géré en commun par un groupe d’habitants. La dénomination de jardin partagé est celle choisie par l'État français depuis 2014 (bien que les autres appellations lui soient antérieures et restent largement utilisées dans le monde francophone) : « On entend par jardins partagés les jardins créés ou animés collectivement, ayant pour objet de développer des liens sociaux de proximité par le biais d’activités sociales, culturelles ou éducatives et étant accessibles au public. » (fr) +, A community garden is a piece of land gardened or cultivated by a group of people individually or collectively. Normally in community gardens, the land is divided into individual plots. Each individual gardener is responsible for their own plot and the yielding or the production of which belongs to the individual. In collective gardens the piece of land is not divided. A group of people cultivate it together and the harvest belongs to all participants. Around the world, community gardens exist in various forms, it can be located in the proximity of neighborhoods or on balconies and rooftops. Its size can vary greatly from one to another. Community gardens have experienced three waves of major development in North America. The earliest wave of community gardens development coincided with the industrial revolution and rapid urbanization process in Europe and North America; they were then called 'Jardin d'ouvrier' (or workers' garden). The second wave of community garden development happened during the WWI and WWII; they were part of "Liberty Gardens" and "Victory Gardens" respectively. The most recent wave of community garden development happened in the 1970s during the OPEC crisis, results of grassroots movement in quest for available land to combat against food insecurity. More recently, community gardens have seen a global resurgence. This may be related to several issues faced by the global population in the 21st century, such as ecological crisis, climate change and the new sanitary crisis. Community gardens contribute to the urban agriculture movement and the requests from citizens for more community gardens has been surging in recent years. (en) +
Le jardin communautaire, partagé, associatif ou encore collectif, est un jardin rural ou urbain géré en commun par un groupe d’habitants. La dénomination de jardin partagé est celle choisie par l'État français depuis 2014 (bien que les autres appellations lui soient antérieures et restent largement utilisées dans le monde francophone) : « On entend par jardins partagés les jardins créés ou animés collectivement, ayant pour objet de développer des liens sociaux de proximité par le biais d’activités sociales, culturelles ou éducatives et étant accessibles au public. » (fr) +, A community garden is a piece of land gardened or cultivated by a group of people individually or collectively. Normally in community gardens, the land is divided into individual plots. Each individual gardener is responsible for their own plot and the yielding or the production of which belongs to the individual. In collective gardens the piece of land is not divided. A group of people cultivate it together and the harvest belongs to all participants. Around the world, community gardens exist in various forms, it can be located in the proximity of neighborhoods or on balconies and rooftops. Its size can vary greatly from one to another. Community gardens have experienced three waves of major development in North America. The earliest wave of community gardens development coincided with the industrial revolution and rapid urbanization process in Europe and North America; they were then called 'Jardin d'ouvrier' (or workers' garden). The second wave of community garden development happened during the WWI and WWII; they were part of "Liberty Gardens" and "Victory Gardens" respectively. The most recent wave of community garden development happened in the 1970s during the OPEC crisis, results of grassroots movement in quest for available land to combat against food insecurity. More recently, community gardens have seen a global resurgence. This may be related to several issues faced by the global population in the 21st century, such as ecological crisis, climate change and the new sanitary crisis. Community gardens contribute to the urban agriculture movement and the requests from citizens for more community gardens has been surging in recent years. (en) +
Le concept de justice environnementale applique les théories de la justice au champ de l'environnement et de l'écologie. Il découle de la prise en compte de l'environnement et des services écosystémiques qu'il permet comme du « bien commun. » La justice environnementale peut aussi concerner les effets du dérèglement climatique ; dans ce contexte on parle parfois d'injustice et/ou de « justice climatique ». Ce concept sous-tend qu'il existe des droits sur la nature pour tous et chacun ; individus, familles, collectivités, entreprises et autres groupes humains vis-à-vis de l'environnement considéré comme bien commun, mais en échange de devoirs et d'obligations légales, et selon le PNUD repris par Fabrice Flipo (2002), « en l’absence de tierce-parties capables d’administrer une justice : les plus forts outrepassent leurs droits et échappent à leurs devoirs, constituant peu à peu de petits potentats privés. Les règles actuelles conduisent donc sans surprise à une augmentation mondiale des inégalités ».Ce concept invite donc aussi à penser et mettre en œuvre des mesures de réduction, de réparation et de compensation quand le préjudice écologique n'a pu être évité, ce qui peut parfois nécessiter ou justifier une certaine « ingérence écologique ». Ces devoirs ou obligations sont souvent regroupés dans la notion de « responsabilité sociale et environnementale », la liberté d'exploiter l'environnement s'arrêtant là où elle menace celle des autres (il y a alors obligation à ne pas surexploiter une ressource), et là où l'environnement (biodiversité, habitats naturels, diversité génétique) serait lui-même menacé par les activités humaines. La justice environnementale s’apparente in fine à une réflexion éthique sur la responsabilité et la liberté. Le cœur de l’argumentaire consiste à exposer que la souffrance est prioritaire au bien-être et que la responsabilité prime sur la liberté. La justice environnementale mérite d'être saisie via le développement socialement durable (DSD) où l’on donne une priorité aux capacités personnelles, en particulier à la capacité d’auto-contrainte de la personne sinon à sa capacité de résilience. Il en résulte une structure de capacités qui imprègne la personne, pouvant la renforcer mais aussi la fragiliser. (fr) , Environmental justice is a social movement to address the unfair exposure of poor and marginalized communities to harms from hazardous waste, resource extraction, and other land uses. The movement has generated hundreds of studies showing that exposure to environmental harms is inequitably distributed. The global environmental justice movement arises from place-based environmental conflicts in which local environmental defenders frequently confront multi-national corporations in resource extraction or other industries. Local outcomes of these conflicts are increasingly influenced by trans-national environmental justice networks. The movement began in the United States in the 1980s and was heavily influenced by the American civil rights movement. The original conception of environmental justice in the 1980s focused on harms to marginalised racial groups within rich countries such as the United States and was framed as environmental racism. The movement was later expanded to consider gender, international environmental discrimination, and inequalities within disadvantaged groups. As the movement achieved some success in more affluent countries, environmental burdens have shifted to the Global South (as for example through extractivism or the global waste trade). The movement for environmental justice has thus become more global, with some of its aims now being articulated by the United Nations. Environmental justice scholars have produced a large interdisciplinary body of social science literature that includes political ecology, contributions to environmental law, and theories on justice and sustainability. (en) +
Social justice is justice in terms of the distribution of wealth, opportunities, and privileges within a society. In Western and Asian cultures, the concept of social justice has often referred to the process of ensuring that individuals fulfill their societal roles and receive their due from society. In the current movements for social justice, the emphasis has been on the breaking of barriers for social mobility, the creation of safety nets, and economic justice. Social justice assigns rights and duties in the institutions of society, which enables people to receive the basic benefits and burdens of cooperation. The relevant institutions often include taxation, social insurance, public health, public school, public services, labor law and regulation of markets, to ensure distribution of wealth, and equal opportunity. Interpretations that relate justice to a reciprocal relationship to society are mediated by differences in cultural traditions, some of which emphasize the individual responsibility toward society and others the equilibrium between access to power and its responsible use. Hence, social justice is invoked today while reinterpreting historical figures such as Bartolomé de las Casas, in philosophical debates about differences among human beings, in efforts for gender, ethnic, and social equality, for advocating justice for migrants, prisoners, the environment, and the physically and developmentally disabled. While concepts of social justice can be found in classical and Christian philosophical sources, from Plato and Aristotle to Augustine of Hippo and Thomas Aquinas, the term social justice finds its earliest uses in the late 18th century, albeit with unclear theoretical or practical meanings. The use of the term was early on subject to accusations of redundancy and of rhetorical flourish, perhaps but not necessarily related to amplifying one view of distributive justice. In the coining and definition of the term in the natural law social scientific treatise of Luigi Taparelli, in the early 1840s, Taparelli established the natural law principle that corresponded to the evangelical principle of brotherly love—i.e. social justice reflects the duty one has to one’s other self in the interdependent abstract unity of the human person in society. After the Revolutions of 1848 the term was popularized generically through the writings of Antonio Rosmini-Serbati. In the late industrial revolution, Progressive Era American legal scholars began to use the term more, particularly Louis Brandeis and Roscoe Pound. From the early 20th century it was also embedded in international law and institutions; the preamble to establish the International Labour Organization recalled that "universal and lasting peace can be established only if it is based upon social justice." In the later 20th century, social justice was made central to the philosophy of the social contract, primarily by John Rawls in A Theory of Justice (1971). In 1993, the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action treats social justice as a purpose of human rights education. (en) , La justice sociale est une construction morale et politique qui vise à l'égalité des droits et conçoit la nécessité d'une solidarité collective entre les personnes d'une société donnée. L'entrée correspondant à ce terme dans le Dictionnaire des sciences économiques et sociales le fait reposer théoriquement sur deux principes. Soit, un premier principe d'équité, avec lequel il ne faut pas confondre celui de justice, et qui s'entend plutôt comme le principe du « à chacun son dû ». Dans ce cas, la part individuelle revenant à celui qui bénéficie du traitement équitable doit être conforme aux attentes les plus généralement exprimées dans une société à l'égard des autres parts individuelles. Soit, un second principe, dit moral, d'une prémisse d'égalité entre tous les membres composants la société. Dans ce cas, la notion de justice sociale est essentiellement une projection vers une société plus juste, en admettant qu'il y ait toujours des injustices. On peut le voir soit comme une utopie, soit comme une démarche allant vers plus de progressisme. Ce premier partage définitoire permet de tracer plusieurs règles générales d'application de la justice sociale. La justice sociale est dite commutative quand elle est fondée sur l'idée que la pure réciprocité doit exister entre les membres et la société (chacun reçoit en contrepartie mesurée d'un effort fourni). Elle sera, en revanche, qualifiée de distributive, si elle vise à donner à chacun la part qui lui revient pour vivre décemment, en se réservant de préciser quels critères ou catégories seront utilisés pour élaborer cette distribution (économique, sociale, culturelle). Les actions ayant pour objectif de rétablir une justice sociale visent à élaborer un meilleur système de répartitions, où chaque individu a et conserve les mêmes chances de réussite tout au long des situations de sa vie d'individu. Ainsi, on parle parfois d'« égalité des chances ». Les corrections nécessaires peuvent être sociales, financières ou culturelles. La justice sociale peut aussi se définir de manière négative : est injuste ce qui n'est pas acceptable socialement. Par exemple, les inégalités de salaires entre métiers de qualifications différentes sont le plus souvent considérées comme justes, parce qu'elles sont socialement acceptées par la majorité. Il existe une distinction entre justice sociale (ou équité) et égalité. La justice sociale est aussi une notion qui évolue dans le temps, ce qui est juste socialement peut devenir injuste si le contexte change (voir sociologie de la justice sociale). Dans son ouvrage majeur Théorie de la justice de 1971, le libéral John Rawls écrit qu'une société est juste si elle respecte trois principes, dans l'ordre : 1.
* garantie des libertés de base égales pour tous ; 2.
* égalité des chances ; 3.
* maintien des seules inégalités qui profitent aux plus défavorisés. (fr)
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A whistleblower (also written as whistle-blower or whistle blower) is a person, often an employee, who reveals information about activity within a private or public organization that is deemed illegal, immoral, illicit, unsafe or fraudulent. Whistleblowers can use a variety of internal or external channels to communicate information or allegations. Over 83% of whistleblowers report internally to a supervisor, human resources, compliance, or a neutral third party within the company, hoping that the company will address and correct the issues. A whistleblower can also bring allegations to light by communicating with external entities, such as the media, government, or law enforcement. Whistleblowing can occur in either the private sector or the public sector. Retaliation is a real risk for whistleblowers, who often pay a heavy price for blowing the whistle. The most common form of retaliation is abrupt termination of employment. However, several other actions may also be considered retaliatory, including extreme increases in workloads, having hours cut drastically, preventing task completion, or bullying. Laws in many countries attempt to protect whistleblowers and to regulate the whistleblowing activities. These laws tend to adopt different approaches to public and private sector whistleblowing. Whistleblowers do not always achieve their aims. For their claims to be credible and successful, they must have compelling evidence to support their claims that the government or regulating body can use or investigate to "prove" such claims and hold corrupt companies and/or government agencies to account. (en) +
, A Creative Commons (CC) license is one of several public copyright licenses that enable the free distribution of an otherwise copyrighted "work". A CC license is used when an author wants to give other people the right to share, use, and build upon a work that the author has created. CC provides an author flexibility (for example, they might choose to allow only non-commercial uses of a given work) and protects the people who use or redistribute an author's work from concerns of copyright infringement as long as they abide by the conditions that are specified in the license by which the author distributes the work. There are several types of Creative Commons licenses. Each license differs by several combinations that condition the terms of distribution. They were initially released on December 16, 2002, by Creative Commons, a U.S. non-profit corporation founded in 2001. There have also been five versions of the suite of licenses, numbered 1.0 through 4.0. Released in November 2013, the 4.0 license suite is the most current. While the Creative Commons license was originally grounded in the American legal system, there are now several Creative Commons jurisdiction ports which accommodate international laws. In October 2014, the Open Knowledge Foundation approved the Creative Commons CC BY, CC BY-SA and CC0 licenses as conformant with the "Open Definition" for content and data. (en) +
Linux ou GNU/Linux est une famille de systèmes d'exploitation open source de type Unix fondé sur le noyau Linux, créé en 1991 par Linus Torvalds. De nombreuses distributions Linux ont depuis vu le jour et constituent un important vecteur de popularisation du mouvement du logiciel libre. Si à l'origine, Linux a été développé pour les ordinateurs compatibles PC, il n'a jamais équipé qu'une très faible part des ordinateurs personnels. Mais le noyau Linux, accompagné ou non des logiciels GNU, est également utilisé par d'autres types de systèmes informatiques, notamment les serveurs, téléphones portables, systèmes embarqués ou encore superordinateurs. Le système d'exploitation pour téléphones portables Android qui utilise le noyau Linux mais pas GNU, équipe aujourd'hui 85 % des tablettes tactiles et smartphones. (fr) +, Linux (/ˈliːnʊks/ LEE-nuuks or /ˈlɪnʊks/ LIN-uuks) is a family of open-source Unix-like operating systems based on the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released on September 17, 1991, by Linus Torvalds. Linux is typically packaged as a Linux distribution, which includes the kernel and supporting system software and libraries, many of which are provided by the GNU Project. Many Linux distributions use the word "Linux" in their name, but the Free Software Foundation uses the name "GNU/Linux" to emphasize the importance of GNU software, causing some controversy. Popular Linux distributions include Debian, Fedora Linux, and Ubuntu, the latter of which itself consists of many different distributions and modifications, including Lubuntu and Xubuntu. Commercial distributions include Red Hat Enterprise Linux and SUSE Linux Enterprise. Desktop Linux distributions include a windowing system such as X11 or Wayland, and a desktop environment such as GNOME or KDE Plasma. Distributions intended for servers may omit graphics altogether, or include a solution stack such as LAMP. Because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any purpose. Linux was originally developed for personal computers based on the Intel x86 architecture, but has since been ported to more platforms than any other operating system. Because of the dominance of the Linux-based Android on smartphones, Linux, including Android, has the largest installed base of all general-purpose operating systems, as of May 2022. Although Linux is, as of November 2022, used by only around 2.6 percent of desktop computers, the Chromebook, which runs the Linux kernel-based ChromeOS, dominates the US K–12 education market and represents nearly 20 percent of sub-$300 notebook sales in the US. Linux is the leading operating system on servers (over 96.4% of the top 1 million web servers' operating systems are Linux), leads other big iron systems such as mainframe computers, and is used on all of the world's 500 fastest supercompters (since November 2017, having gradually displaced all competitors). Linux also runs on embedded systems, i.e. devices whose operating system is typically built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system. This includes routers, automation controls, smart home devices, video game consoles, televisions (Samsung and LG Smart TVs), automobiles (Tesla, Audi, Mercedes-Benz, Hyundai and Toyota), and spacecraft (Falcon 9 rocket, Dragon crew capsule and the Perseverance rover). Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and open-source software collaboration. The source code may be used, modified and distributed commercially or non-commercially by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License (GPL). The Linux kernel, for example, is licensed under the GPLv2. (en)
Housing, or more generally, living spaces, refers to the construction and assigned usage of houses or buildings individually or collectively, for the purpose of shelter. Housing ensures that members of society have a place to live, whether it is a home or some other kind of dwelling, lodging or shelter. Many governments have one or more housing authorities, sometimes also called a housing ministry or housing department. Housing in many different areas consists of public, social and private housing. In the United States, it was not until the 19th and 20th century that there was a lot more government involvement in housing. It was mainly aimed at helping those who were poor in the community. Public housing provides help and assistance to those who are poor and mainly low-income earners. A study report shows that there are many individuals living in public housing. There are over 1.2 million families or households. These types of housing were built mainly to provide people, mainly those who are low-income and elderly, with safe, affordable, and good housing units. There are many people who are a part of the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). When counting, there are over nine hundred thousand participants in this program. (en) +
Free software or libre software, infrequently known as freedom-respecting software, is computer software distributed under terms that allow users to run the software for any purpose as well as to study, change, and distribute it and any adapted versions. Free software is a matter of liberty, not price; all users are legally free to do what they want with their copies of a free software (including profiting from them) regardless of how much is paid to obtain the program. Computer programs are deemed "free" if they give end-users (not just the developer) ultimate control over the software and, subsequently, over their devices. The right to study and modify a computer program entails that source code—the preferred format for making changes—be made available to users of that program. While this is often called "access to source code" or "public availability", the Free Software Foundation (FSF) recommends against thinking in those terms, because it might give the impression that users have an obligation (as opposed to a right) to give non-users a copy of the program. Although the term "free software" had already been used loosely in the past and other permissive software like the Berkeley Software Distribution released in 1978 existed, Richard Stallman is credited with tying it to the sense under discussion and starting the free software movement in 1983, when he launched the GNU Project: a collaborative effort to create a freedom-respecting operating system, and to revive the spirit of cooperation once prevalent among hackers during the early days of computing. (en) +, Un logiciel libre est un logiciel dont l'utilisation, l'étude, la modification et la duplication par autrui en vue de sa diffusion sont permises, techniquement et juridiquement, ceci afin de garantir certaines libertés induites, dont le contrôle du programme par l'utilisateur et la possibilité de partage entre individus. Ces droits peuvent être simplement disponibles — cas du domaine public — ou bien établis par une licence, dite « libre », basée sur le droit d'auteur. Les « licences copyleft » garantissent le maintien de ces droits aux utilisateurs même pour les travaux dérivés. Les logiciels libres constituent une alternative à ceux qui ne le sont pas, qualifiés de « propriétaires » ou de « privateurs ». Ces derniers sont alors considérés par une partie de la communauté du logiciel libre comme étant l'instrument d'un pouvoir injuste, en permettant au développeur de contrôler l'utilisateur. Le logiciel libre est souvent confondu à tort avec :
* les gratuiciels (freewares) : un gratuiciel est un logiciel gratuit propriétaire, alors qu'un logiciel libre se définit par les libertés accordées à l'utilisateur. Si la nature du logiciel libre facilite et encourage son partage, ce qui tend à le rendre gratuit, elle ne s'oppose pas pour autant à sa rentabilité principalement via des services associés. Les rémunérations sont liées par exemple aux travaux de création, de développement, de mise à disposition et de soutien technique. D'un autre côté les logiciels gratuits ne sont pas nécessairement libres, car leur code source n'est pas systématiquement accessible et leur licence peut ne pas correspondre à la définition du logiciel libre.
* l’open source : le logiciel libre, selon son initiateur, est un mouvement social qui repose sur les principes de Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité ; l’open source quant à lui, décrit pour la première fois dans La Cathédrale et le Bazar, s'attache aux avantages d'une méthode de développement au travers de la réutilisation du code source. (fr)
Open-source software (OSS) is computer software that is released under a license in which the copyright holder grants users the rights to use, study, change, and distribute the software and its source code to anyone and for any purpose. Open-source software may be developed in a collaborative public manner. Open-source software is a prominent example of open collaboration, meaning any capable user is able to participate online in development, making the number of possible contributors indefinite. The ability to examine the code facilitates public trust in the software. Open-source software development can bring in diverse perspectives beyond those of a single company. A 2008 report by the Standish Group stated that adoption of open-source software models has resulted in savings of about $60 billion per year for consumers. Open source code can be used for studying and allows capable end users to adapt software to their personal needs in a similar way user scripts and custom style sheets allow for web sites, and eventually publish the modification as a fork for users with similar preferences, and directly submit possible improvements as pull requests. (en) +, La désignation open source /ˈoʊpən sɔɹs/, ou code source ouvert, s'applique aux logiciels (et s'étend maintenant aux œuvres de l'esprit) dont la licence respecte des critères précisément établis par l'Open Source Initiative, c'est-à-dire les possibilités de libre redistribution, d'accès au code source et de création de travaux dérivés. Mis à la disposition du grand public, ce code source est généralement le résultat d'une collaboration entre programmeurs. Le mouvement open source s'est développé en parallèle du mouvement du logiciel libre qui prône des valeurs philosophiques et politiques de justice, l'open source se focalisant sur des considérations techniques de développement logiciel et ne s'opposant pas à l'utilisation de systèmes intégrés combinant logiciels propriétaires et logiciels open source. Dans la pratique toutefois, la très grande majorité des logiciels open source sont également libres, l'exception la plus notable étant les logiciels pratiquant la tivoïsation. L’open source a déjà investi tous les grands domaines du système d’information des administrations françaises : environnements serveurs, domaines applicatifs, outils d’ingénierie, solutions de réseaux et sécurité. Les solutions open source sont désormais au même rang que les solutions propriétaires dans le paysage des logiciels du secteur public. Les décideurs effectuent d’ailleurs de plus en plus leur choix à partir d’un jugement éclairé, en comparant systématiquement solutions propriétaires et solutions libres. (fr) +
M
Machismo (/məˈtʃiːzmoʊ, mɑː-, -ˈtʃɪz-/; Spanish: [maˈtʃismo]; Portuguese: [maˈʃiʒmu]; from Spanish macho 'male', and -ismo) is the sense of being "manly" and self-reliant, a concept associated with "a strong sense of masculine pride: an exaggerated masculinity". Machismo is a term originating in the early 1930s and 40s best defined as having pride in one’s masculinity. It is associated with "a man's responsibility to provide for, protect, and defend his family". Machismo is strongly and consistently associated with dominance, aggression, exhibition, and nurturance. The correlation to machismo is found to be deeply rooted in family dynamics and culture. The word macho has a long history both in Spain and Portugal, including the Spanish and Portuguese languages. Macho in Portuguese and Spanish is a strictly masculine term, derived from from the Latin mascŭlus, which means "male". It was originally associated with the ideal societal role men were expected to play in their communities, most particularly Iberian language-speaking societies and countries. In addition, due to Mexico's history of conquest, battles and constant bureaucratic struggles, it was expected of men to possess and display bravery, courage, strength, wisdom and leadership. To ser macho (literally, "to be a macho") was an aspiration for all boys. As history shows, men were often in powerful and dominating roles thus portrayed the stereotype of a violent macho man. Thus the origin of machismo serves as an illustration of past history, the struggles that colonial Mexico faced and the evolution of gender stereotypes with time. Machismo is a factor challenged among different groups due to how an ideal man is expected to be portrayed, which builds pressure. Mentally, men may feel the need to take up more opportunities to meet expectations, such as supporting the home, or maintaining employment, leading to increased stress. This may also take a toll as physically well straining to be strong and overexerting the body, or the opposite of putting on weight by not having the desired physique and feeling inferior. Furthermore, researchers suggest that machismo can potray the supremacy or dominance that a man feels he has over a woman due to cultural and societal factors. (en)
Magna Carta (latin) traduit en français par Grande Charte d'Angleterre ou Grande Charte, désigne plusieurs versions d'une charte arrachée pour la première fois par le baronnage anglais au roi Jean sans Terre le 15 juin 1215 après une courte guerre civile qui culmine le 17 mai par la prise de Londres. Les barons, excédés par les demandes militaires et financières du roi et par les échecs répétés en France, en particulier à Bouvines et à La Roche-aux-Moines, y imposent, dans un esprit de retour à l'ordre ancien, leurs exigences, dont la libération d'otages retenus par le roi, le respect de certaines règles de droit propres à la noblesse, la reconnaissance des franchises ecclésiastiques et bourgeoises, le contrôle de la politique fiscale par un (en). La charte est abrogée deux mois après son scellement puis réactivée dans une version expurgée, sans (en), le 12 novembre 1216 durant la minorité d'Henri III, amendée et complétée le 6 novembre 1217 d'une loi (en) dite Charte de forêt. Une quatrième version, réduite de près de la moitié par rapport à celle de 1215 et très peu différente de la précédente, est officiellement promulguée le 11 février 1225. Confirmée solennellement le 10 novembre 1297, c'est elle que désignera dès lors l'expression Magna Carta. En 1354 y sont introduites, sans rien changer aux statuts sociaux en vigueur, les notions d'égalité universelle devant la loi, principe qui sera utilisé en vain à la fin du XVIIe siècle pour faire libérer les esclaves parvenus sur le territoire anglais, et de droit à un procès équitable. Document décalqué de la Charte des libertés initialement sans portée réelle mais vigoureusement promu entre 1297 et 1305 dans la période du règne finissant d'Édouard Ier pour soutenir une féodalité déliquescente, il est régulièrement revendiqué par le Parlement durant tout le bas Moyen Âge mais tombe en désuétude à la suite des bouleversements institutionnels provoqués par la guerre des Deux-Roses. Sorti de l'oubli, il est instrumentalisé au début du XVIIe siècle par les opposants à une monarchie absolue, tel Henry Spelman, et érigé à la suite de la Révolution par les partisans d'une monarchie constitutionnelle comme une preuve d' (en). Ses articles 38 et 39 concernant ce qui sera désigné à partir de 1305 par l'expression Habeas corpus, de simple rappel d'un privilège aristocratique devient, à l'occasion du vote de la (en) en 1679, le symbole d'une justice qui proscrit les arrestations arbitraires — partant du principe de son indépendance vis-à-vis de l'exécutif — voire de la liberté individuelle. Considérant qu'à peu près chaque pays de common law qui possède une constitution a subi l'influence de la Grande Charte, cette dernière est peut-être le document juridique le plus important dans l'histoire de la démocratie moderne, marquant le passage d'un État absolu à celui d'un État de droit. (fr) , Magna Carta Libertatum (Medieval Latin for "Great Charter of Freedoms"), commonly called Magna Carta (also Magna Charta; "Great Charter"), is a royal charter of rights agreed to by King John of England at Runnymede, near Windsor, on 15 June 1215. First drafted by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Cardinal Stephen Langton, to make peace between the unpopular king and a group of rebel barons, it promised the protection of church rights, protection for the barons from illegal imprisonment, access to swift justice, and limitations on feudal payments to the Crown, to be implemented through a council of 25 barons. Neither side stood behind their commitments, and the charter was annulled by Pope Innocent III, leading to the First Barons' War. After John's death, the regency government of his young son, Henry III, reissued the document in 1216, stripped of some of its more radical content, in an unsuccessful bid to build political support for their cause. At the end of the war in 1217, it formed part of the peace treaty agreed at Lambeth, where the document acquired the name "Magna Carta", to distinguish it from the smaller Charter of the Forest which was issued at the same time. Short of funds, Henry reissued the charter again in 1225 in exchange for a grant of new taxes. His son, Edward I, repeated the exercise in 1297, this time confirming it as part of England's statute law. The charter became part of English political life and was typically renewed by each monarch in turn, although as time went by and the fledgling Parliament of England passed new laws, it lost some of its practical significance. At the end of the 16th century, there was an upsurge in interest in Magna Carta. Lawyers and historians at the time believed that there was an ancient English constitution, going back to the days of the Anglo-Saxons, that protected individual English freedoms. They argued that the Norman invasion of 1066 had overthrown these rights, and that Magna Carta had been a popular attempt to restore them, making the charter an essential foundation for the contemporary powers of Parliament and legal principles such as habeas corpus. Although this historical account was badly flawed, jurists such as Sir Edward Coke used Magna Carta extensively in the early 17th century, arguing against the divine right of kings. Both James I and his son Charles I attempted to suppress the discussion of Magna Carta. The political myth of Magna Carta and its protection of ancient personal liberties persisted after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 until well into the 19th century. It influenced the early American colonists in the Thirteen Colonies and the formation of the United States Constitution, which became the supreme law of the land in the new republic of the United States. Research by Victorian historians showed that the original 1215 charter had concerned the medieval relationship between the monarch and the barons, rather than the rights of ordinary people, but the charter remained a powerful, iconic document, even after almost all of its content was repealed from the statute books in the 19th and 20th centuries. Four clauses of the original 1215 charter (1 (part), 13, 39 and 40) remain in force in England and Wales (as clauses 1, 9 and 29 of the 1297 statute). Magna Carta still forms an important symbol of liberty today, often cited by politicians and campaigners, and is held in great respect by the British and American legal communities, Lord Denning describing it as "the greatest constitutional document of all times—the foundation of the freedom of the individual against the arbitrary authority of the despot". In the 21st century, four exemplifications of the original 1215 charter remain in existence, two at the British Library, one at Lincoln Castle and one at Salisbury Cathedral. There are also a handful of the subsequent charters in public and private ownership, including copies of the 1297 charter in both the United States and Australia. Although scholars refer to the 63 numbered "clauses" of Magna Carta, this is a modern system of numbering, introduced by Sir William Blackstone in 1759; the original charter formed a single, long unbroken text. The four original 1215 charters were displayed together at the British Library for one day, 3 February 2015, to mark the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta. (en)
Au sens large, une corporation est une réunion durable de personnes poursuivant un but commun, et dont l'état ne dépend pas du changement de ses membres. Le mot vient du latin corporari (« se former en corps »), et désigne une personne morale dont les membres (personnes physiques et/ou morales) possèdent en général une même caractéristique (par exemple, l'exercice d'une fonction). Les corporations peuvent être de droit privé mais sont en général (dans un sens plus contemporain du terme) instituée par une loi et de droit public. Les corporations se distinguent des établissements, qui sont groupements de biens affectés à un certain but. Au sens large du terme, les associations, syndicats et apparentés, qui sont des regroupements volontaires de droit privé sont donc des corporations. Le corporatisme peut désigner, selon qu'il prend ou non une connotation péjorative, la tendance qu'ont les membres d'un corps professionnel ou administratif à privilégier leurs intérêts matériels au détriment de ceux du public qu'ils servent (consommateurs, administrés, justiciables, usagers, élèves, clients, patients, etc.) (fr) +, A guild (/ɡɪld/ GILD) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular area. The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradesmen belonging to a professional association. They sometimes depended on grants of letters patent from a monarch or other ruler to enforce the flow of trade to their self-employed members, and to retain ownership of tools and the supply of materials, but were mostly regulated by the city government. A lasting legacy of traditional guilds are the guildhalls constructed and used as guild meeting-places. Guild members found guilty of cheating the public would be fined or banned from the guild. Typically the key "privilege" was that only guild members were allowed to sell their goods or practice their skill within the city. There might be controls on minimum or maximum prices, hours of trading, numbers of apprentices, and many other things. These rules reduced free competition, but sometimes maintained a good quality of work. An important result of the guild framework was the emergence of universities at Bologna (established in 1088), Oxford (at least since 1096) and Paris (c. 1150); they originated as guilds of students (as at Bologna) or of masters (as at Paris). (en) +
Le militantisme est une forme d'engagement collectif à une cause de nature morale, religieuse, sociale, politique, associative ou syndicale souvent en vue de protester contre ce qui est perçu comme une injustice. Historiquement ce terme militaire issu du latin fait référence aux membres de la milice du Christ, mais son usage au vingtième siècle dérive pour décrire l'expression organisée d'une protestation d'un groupe social. (fr) +
Fashion is a form of self-expression and autonomy at a particular period and place and in a specific context, of clothing, footwear, lifestyle, accessories, makeup, hairstyle, and body posture. The term implies a look defined by the fashion industry as that which is trending. Everything that is considered fashion is available and popularized by the fashion system (industry and media). Given the rise in mass production of commodities and clothing at lower prices and global reach, sustainability has become an urgent issue among politicians, brands, and consumers. (en) +
A complementary currency is a currency or medium of exchange that is not necessarily a national currency, but that is thought of as supplementing or complementing national currencies. Complementary currencies are usually not legal tender and their use is based on agreement between the parties exchanging the currency. According to Jérôme Blanc of Laboratoire d'Économie de la Firme et des Institutions, complementary currencies aim to protect, stimulate or orientate the economy. They may also be used to advance particular social, environmental, or political goals. When speaking about complementary currencies, a number of overlapping and often interchangeable terms are in use: local or community currencies are complementary currencies used within a locality or other form of community (such as business-based or online communities); regional currencies are similar to local currencies, but are used within a larger geographical region; and sectoral currencies are complementary currencies used within a single economic sector, such as education or health care. Many private currencies are complementary currencies issued by private businesses or organizations. Other terms include alternative currency, auxiliary currency, and microcurrency. Mutual credit is a form of alternative currency, and thus any form of lending that does not go through the banking system can be considered a form of alternative currency. Barters are another type of alternative currency. These are actually exchange systems, which trade only items, without the use of any currency whatsoever. Finally, LETS is a special form of barter that trades points for items. One point stands for one worker-hour of work, and is thus a Time-based currency. (en) +
Le Mouvement des biens communs désigne l'ensemble des acteurs et des organisations impliqués dans la réflexion et la mise en pratique des communs ou des biens communs. (fr) +
La notion de mouvement social est définie de manière différente selon les disciplines. En histoire, il s'agit de l'ensemble des événements au cours desquels certains groupes (comme des classes sociales) cherchent à modifier l'organisation de la société en fonction de leurs idéaux : répartition des richesses et du pouvoir politique, progrès social. En politique, et par métonymie, un mouvement social est une somme d'actions qui veulent la concrétisation de cette volonté de progrès social. On parle parfois de mouvement politique. En sociologie, un mouvement social est un ensemble de réseaux informels d'organisations et d'acteurs isolés, construit sur des valeurs partagées et de la solidarité dans marqué par « un agir ensemble intentionnel, marqué par le projet des protagonistes de se mobiliser de concert selon une logique de revendicatif et de défense d’intérêt ou d’une cause. (fr) +, A social movement is a loosely organized effort by a large group of people to achieve a particular goal, typically a social or political one. This may be to carry out a social change, or to resist or undo one. It is a type of group action and may involve individuals, organizations, or both. Social movements have been described as "organizational structures and strategies that may empower oppressed populations to mount effective challenges and resist the more powerful and advantaged elites". They represent a method of social change from the bottom within nations. Political science and sociology have developed a variety of theories and empirical research on social movements. For example, some research in political science highlights the relation between popular movements and the formation of new political parties as well as discussing the function of social movements in relation to agenda setting and influence on politics. Sociologists distinguish between several types of social movement examining things such as scope, type of change, method of work, range, and time frame. Some scholars have argued that modern Western social movements became possible through education (the wider dissemination of literature) and increased mobility of labor due to the industrialization and urbanization of 19th-century societies. It is sometimes argued that the freedom of expression, education and relative economic independence prevalent in the modern Western culture are responsible for the unprecedented number and scope of various contemporary social movements. Many of the social movements of the last hundred years grew up, like the Mau Mau in Kenya, to oppose Western colonialism. Social movements have been and continue to be closely connected with democratic political systems. Occasionally, social movements have been involved in democratizing nations, but more often they have flourished after democratization. Over the past 200 years, they have become part of a popular and global expression of dissent. Modern movements often use technology and the internet to mobilize people globally. Adapting to communication trends is a common theme among successful movements. Research is beginning to explore how advocacy organizations linked to social movements in the U.S. and Canada use social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action. (en)
Le municipalisme libertaire désigne la mise en œuvre locale de l'écologie sociale élaborée par le théoricien communiste libertaire et écologiste politique américain Murray Bookchin. Cette dimension écologiste le distingue du communalisme traditionnel tel qu'il fut proposé par les communes insurrectionnelles en France en 1870-1871 qui est davantage restreint au changement de système politique (remplacement de la démocratie représentative par la démocratie directe) sans promotion d'une autre forme d'idéologie. Ces termes sont utilisés pour décrire un système politique dans lequel des institutions libertaires, composées d'assemblées de citoyens, dans un esprit de démocratie directe, remplaceraient l'État-nation par une confédération de municipalités ou communes libres et autogérées. Le projet repose sur l'idée que la commune constitue une cellule de base capable d'initier une transformation sociale radicale par propagation. (fr) +,
A municipality is usually a single administrative division having corporate status and powers of self-government or jurisdiction as granted by national and regional laws to which it is subordinate. The term municipality may also mean the governing body of a given municipality. A municipality is a general-purpose administrative subdivision, as opposed to a special-purpose district. The term is derived from French municipalité and Latin municipalis. The English word municipality derives from the Latin social contract municipium (derived from a word meaning "duty holders"), referring to the Latin communities that supplied Rome with troops in exchange for their own incorporation into the Roman state (granting Roman citizenship to the inhabitants) while permitting the communities to retain their own local governments (a limited autonomy). A municipality can be any political jurisdiction, from a sovereign state such as the Principality of Monaco, to a small village such as West Hampton Dunes, New York. The territory over which a municipality has jurisdiction may encompass
* only one populated place such as a city, town, or village
* several such places (e.g., early jurisdictions in the U.S. state of New Jersey (1798–1899) as townships governing several villages, municipalities of Mexico, municipalities of Colombia)
* only parts of such places, sometimes boroughs of a city, such as the 34 municipalities of Santiago, Chile. (en) +
Music is generally defined as the art of arranging sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm or otherwise expressive content. Exact definitions of music vary considerably around the world, though it is an aspect of all human societies, a cultural universal. While scholars agree that music is defined by a few specific elements, there is no consensus on their precise definitions. The creation of music is commonly divided into musical composition, musical improvisation, and musical performance, though the topic itself extends into , criticism, philosophy, and psychology. Music may be performed or improvised using a vast range of instruments, including the human voice. In some musical contexts, a performance or composition may be to some extent improvised. For instance, in Hindustani classical music, the performer plays spontaneously while following a partially defined structure and using characteristic motifs. In modal jazz the performers may take turns leading and responding, while sharing a changing set of notes. In a free jazz context, there may be no structure whatsoever, with each performer acting at their discretion. Music may be deliberately composed to be unperformable, or agglomerated electronically from many performances. Music is played in public and private areas, highlighted at events such as festivals, rock concerts, and orchestra performance, and heard incidentally as part of a score or soundtrack to a film, TV show, opera, or video game. Musical playback is the primary function of an MP3 player or CD player and a universal feature of radios and smartphones. Music often plays a key role in social activities, religious rituals, rite of passage ceremonies, celebrations, and cultural activities. The music industry includes songwriters, performers, sound engineers, producers, tour organizers, distributors of instruments, accessories, and sheet music. Compositions, performances, and recordings are assessed and evaluated by music critics, music journalists, and music scholars, as well as amateurs. (en)
N
New Public Management (NPM) is an approach to running public service organizations that is used in government and public service institutions and agencies, at both sub-national and national levels. The term was first introduced by academics in the UK and Australia to describe approaches that were developed during the 1980s as part of an effort to make the public service more "businesslike" and to improve its efficiency by using private sector management models. As with the private sector, which focuses on customer service, NPM reforms often focused on the "centrality of citizens who were the recipient of the services or customers to the public sector". NPM reformers experimented with using decentralized service delivery models, to give local agencies more freedom in how they delivered programs or services. In some cases, NPM reforms that used e-government consolidated a program or service to a central location to reduce costs. Some governments tried using quasi-market structures, so that the public sector would have to compete against the private sector (notably in the UK, in health care). Key themes in NPM were "financial control, value for money, increasing efficiency ..., identifying and setting targets and continuance monitoring of performance, handing over ... power to the senior management" executives. Performance was assessed with audits, benchmarks and performance evaluations. Some NPM reforms used private sector companies to deliver what were formerly public services. NPM advocates in some countries worked to remove "collective agreements [in favour of] ... individual rewards packages at senior levels combined with short term contracts" and introduce private sector-style corporate governance, including using a Board of Directors approach to strategic guidance for public organizations. While NPM approaches have been used in many countries around the world, NPM is particularly associated with the most industrialized OECD nations such as the United Kingdom, Australia and the United States of America. NPM advocates focus on using approaches from the private sector – the corporate or business world–which can be successfully applied in the public sector and in a public administration context. NPM approaches have been used to reform the public sector, its policies and its programs. NPM advocates claim that it is a more efficient and effective means of attaining the same outcome. In NPM, citizens are viewed as "customers" and public servants are viewed as public managers. NPM tries to realign the relationship between public service managers and their political superiors by making a parallel relationship between the two. Under NPM, public managers have incentive-based motivation such as pay-for-performance, and clear performance targets are often set, which are assessed by using performance evaluations. As well, managers in an NPM paradigm may have greater discretion and freedom as to how they go about achieving the goals set for them. This NPM approach is contrasted with the traditional public administration model, in which institutional decision-making, policy-making and public service delivery is guided by regulations, legislation and administrative procedures. NPM reforms use approaches such as disaggregation, customer satisfaction initiatives, customer service efforts, applying an entrepreneurial spirit to public service, and introducing innovations. The NPM system allows "the expert manager to have a greater discretion". "Public Managers under the New Public Management reforms can provide a range of choices from which customers can choose, including the right to opt out of the service delivery system completely". (en)
A domain name is a string that identifies a realm of administrative autonomy, authority or control within the Internet. Domain names are often used to identify services provided through the Internet, such as websites, email services and more. As of 2017, 330.6 million domain names had been registered. Domain names are used in various networking contexts and for application-specific naming and addressing purposes. In general, a domain name identifies a network domain or an Internet Protocol (IP) resource, such as a personal computer used to access the Internet, or a server computer. Domain names are formed by the rules and procedures of the Domain Name System (DNS). Any name registered in the DNS is a domain name. Domain names are organized in subordinate levels (subdomains) of the DNS root domain, which is nameless. The first-level set of domain names are the top-level domains (TLDs), including the generic top-level domains (gTLDs), such as the prominent domains com, info, net, edu, and org, and the country code top-level domains (ccTLDs). Below these top-level domains in the DNS hierarchy are the second-level and third-level domain names that are typically open for reservation by end-users who wish to connect local area networks to the Internet, create other publicly accessible Internet resources or run web sites. The registration of a second- or third-level domain name is usually administered by a domain name registrar who sell its services to the public. A fully qualified domain name (FQDN) is a domain name that is completely specified with all labels in the hierarchy of the DNS, having no parts omitted. Traditionally a FQDN ends in a dot (.) to denote the top of the DNS tree. Labels in the Domain Name System are case-insensitive, and may therefore be written in any desired capitalization method, but most commonly domain names are written in lowercase in technical contexts. (en) +
O
Open data is data that is openly accessible, exploitable, editable and shared by anyone for any purpose. Open data is licensed under an open license. The goals of the open data movement are similar to those of other "open(-source)" movements such as open-source software, hardware, open content, open specifications, open education, open educational resources, open government, open knowledge, open access, open science, and the open web. The growth of the open data movement is paralleled by a rise in intellectual property rights. The philosophy behind open data has been long established (for example in the Mertonian tradition of science), but the term "open data" itself is recent, gaining popularity with the rise of the Internet and World Wide Web and, especially, with the launch of open-data government initiatives such as Data.gov, Data.gov.uk and Data.gov.in. Open data can be linked data - referred to as linked open data. One of the most important forms of open data is open government data (OGD), which is a form of open data created by ruling government institutions. Open government data's importance is born from it being a part of citizens' everyday lives, down to the most routine/mundane tasks that are seemingly far removed from government. The abbreviation FAIR/O data is sometimes used to indicate that the dataset or database in question complies with the principles of FAIR data and carries an explicit data‑capable open license. (en) +
Open source is source code that is made freely available for possible modification and redistribution. Products include permission to use the source code, design documents, or content of the product. The open-source model is a decentralized software development model that encourages open collaboration.A main principle of open-source software development is peer production, with products such as source code, blueprints, and documentation freely available to the public. The open-source movement in software began as a response to the limitations of proprietary code. The model is used for projects such as in open-source appropriate technology, and open-source drug discovery. Open source promotes universal access via an open-source or free license to a product's design or blueprint, and universal redistribution of that design or blueprint. Before the phrase open source became widely adopted, developers and producers have used a variety of other terms. Open source gained hold with the rise of the Internet. The open-source software movement arose to clarify copyright, licensing, domain, and consumer issues. Generally, open source refers to a computer program in which the source code is available to the general public for use or modification from its original design. Code is released under the terms of a software license. Depending on the license terms, others may then download, modify, and publish their version (fork) back to the community. Many large formal institutions have sprung up to support the development of the open-source movement, including the Apache Software Foundation, which supports community projects such as the open-source framework Apache Hadoop and the open-source HTTP server Apache HTTP. (en) +
A nonprofit organization (NPO) or non-profit organisation, also known as a non-business entity, not-for-profit organization, or nonprofit institution, is a legal entity organized and operated for a collective, public or social benefit, in contrast with an entity that operates as a business aiming to generate a profit for its owners. A nonprofit is subject to the non-distribution constraint: any revenues that exceed expenses must be committed to the organization's purpose, not taken by private parties. An array of organizations are nonprofit, including some political organizations, schools, business associations, churches, social clubs, and consumer cooperatives. Nonprofit entities may seek approval from governments to be tax-exempt, and some may also qualify to receive tax-deductible contributions, but an entity may incorporate as a nonprofit entity without securing tax-exempt status. Key aspects of nonprofits are accountability, trustworthiness, honesty, and openness to every person who has invested time, money, and faith into the organization. Nonprofit organizations are accountable to the donors, founders, volunteers, program recipients, and the public community. Theoretically, for a nonprofit that seeks to finance its operations through donations, public confidence is a factor in the amount of money that a nonprofit organization is able to raise. Supposedly, the more nonprofits focus on their mission, the more public confidence they will have. This will result in more money for the organization. The activities a nonprofit is partaking in can help build the public's confidence in nonprofits, as well as how ethical the standards and practices are. (en) +
P
, Peer-to-peer (P2P) computing or networking is a distributed application architecture that partitions tasks or workloads between peers. Peers are equally privileged, equipotent participants in the network. They are said to form a peer-to-peer network of nodes. Peers make a portion of their resources, such as processing power, disk storage or network bandwidth, directly available to other network participants, without the need for central coordination by servers or stable hosts. Peers are both suppliers and consumers of resources, in contrast to the traditional client–server model in which the consumption and supply of resources are divided. While P2P systems had previously been used in many application domains, the architecture was popularized by the file sharing system Napster, originally released in 1999. The concept has inspired new structures and philosophies in many areas of human interaction. In such social contexts, peer-to-peer as a meme refers to the egalitarian social networking that has emerged throughout society, enabled by Internet technologies in general. (en) +
Le partenariat public-privé (PPP) est un mode de financement par lequel une autorité publique fait appel à des prestataires privés pour financer et gérer un équipement assurant ou contribuant au service public. Le partenaire privé reçoit en contrepartie un paiement du partenaire public ou des usagers du service qu'il gère. Ce mode de financement est présent dans de nombreux pays sous des formes variées. L'expression « partenariat public-privé » désigne des projets plus récents, dans la lignée des contrats d' (en), en anglais private finance initiative, apparus en Grande-Bretagne depuis 1992 ; contrats dont se sont inspirés de nombreux pays. Un exemple typique de partenariat public-privé consiste pour un entrepreneur privé à construire un hôpital public dont il gérera ensuite les activités non médicales. (fr) +, , Una alianza público-privada, colaboración público-privada, iniciativa público-privada o asociación público-privada (escrito frecuentemente con guion y a veces sin él) es un acuerdo entre al menos un actor del sector público y al menos un actor del sector privado para la prestación de un servicio público. Estos acuerdos suelen abreviarse en español con las siglas APP (invariables ya sea singular o plural) y en inglés, con PPP, P3 o 3P en singular y PPPs en plural. Los poderes públicos han utilizado diferentes combinaciones de esfuerzos públicos y privados a lo largo de la historia. Sin embargo, desde 1970 se observa en el mundo una clara tendencia a hacer un mayor uso de diversas fórmulas APP. (es) +
, , La participación política es el conjunto de acciones llevadas a cabo por los ciudadanos que no están necesariamente involucrados en la política de forma directa, y cuya acción pretende influir en el proceso político y en el resultado del mismo. En otras palabras, la participación política describe , directas o indirectas que realizan los ciudadanos para influir en las decisiones o en la elección de los gobernantes y se puede llevar a cabo de forma convencional, por ejemplo, la participación electoral y el activismo partidario o de forma no convencional como las actividades de protesta y el contacto con las autoridades. Para comprender la idea de participación política, primero se ha de plantear el concepto de política, que para este caso, se podría describir como el mecanismo social de resolución de conflictos entre colectivos con intereses diferentes, donde un mayor grado de complejidad social acarrearía un número mayor de intereses distintos. Partiendo de esta explicación, el político sería el individuo encargado de llevar a cabo acuerdos entre intereses confrontados con el fin de encontrar una solución común a todos ellos, o en su defecto, buscar una forma de que estos no perjudiquen al orden y al sistema político. El político, por tanto, es aquel que resuelve los conflictos mediante el manejo de voluntades para lograr o alcanzar un bien común para todos. Dentro de este contexto, la participación política y la participación ciudadana se encuentran relacionadas. Vinculado a la participación ciudadana está el compromiso que consiste en trabajar para promover la calidad de vida de la comunidad mediante procesos políticos y no políticos e involucra el desarrollo de conocimientos como los derechos y obligaciones de los ciudadanos, habilidades para comunicar y difundir opiniones, valores como la responsabilidad y compromiso y en conjunto con la motivación hacer esta diferencia. (es) +
, Scalability is the property of a system to handle a growing amount of work by adding resources to the system. In an economic context, a scalable business model implies that a company can increase sales given increased resources. For example, a package delivery system is scalable because more packages can be delivered by adding more delivery vehicles. However, if all packages had to first pass through a single warehouse for sorting, the system would not be as scalable, because one warehouse can handle only a limited number of packages. In computing, scalability is a characteristic of computers, networks, algorithms, networking protocols, programs and applications. An example is a search engine, which must support increasing numbers of users, and the number of topics it indexes. Webscale is a computer architectural approach that brings the capabilities of large-scale cloud computing companies into enterprise data centers. In mathematics, scalability mostly refers to closure under scalar multiplication. (en) +, Es un anglicismo que describe la capacidad de un negocio o sistema de crecer en magnitud. Aunque la palabra escalabilidad no existe en el diccionario de la RAE el adjetivo más cercano ampliable es de poco uso en telecomunicaciones y en ingeniería informática. La escalabilidad, término tomado en préstamo del idioma inglés, es la propiedad deseable de un sistema, una red o un proceso, que indica su habilidad para reaccionar y adaptarse sin perder calidad, o bien manejar el crecimiento continuo de trabajo de manera fluida, o bien para estar preparado para hacerse más grande sin perder calidad en los servicios ofrecidos. En general, también se podría definir como la capacidad del sistema informático de cambiar su tamaño o configuración para adaptarse a las circunstancias cambiantes. Por ejemplo, una Universidad que establece una red de usuarios por Internet para un edificio de docentes y no solamente quiere que su sistema informático tenga capacidad para acoger a los actuales clientes que son todos profesores, sino también a los clientes que pueda tener en el futuro dado que hay profesores visitantes que requieren de la red por algunas aplicaciones académicas, para esto es necesario implementar soluciones que permitan el crecimiento de la red sin que la posibilidad de su uso y reutilización disminuya o que pueda cambiar su configuración si es necesario. La escalabilidad como propiedad de los sistemas es generalmente difícil de definir, en particular es necesario definir los requisitos específicos para la escalabilidad en esas dimensiones donde se crea que son importantes. Es una edición altamente significativa en sistemas electrónicos, bases de datos, ruteadores y redes. A un sistema cuyo rendimiento es mejorado después de haberle añadido más capacidad hardware, proporcionalmente a la capacidad añadida, se dice que pasa a ser un sistema escalable. (es) +
Le patrimoine culturel se définit comme l'ensemble des biens, matériels ou immatériels, ayant une importance artistique et/ou historique certaine, et qui appartiennent soit à une entité privée (personne, entreprise, association, etc.), soit à une entité publique (commune, département, région, pays, etc.) ; cet ensemble de biens culturels est généralement préservé, restauré, sauvegardé et montré au public, soit de façon exceptionnelle (comme les Journées européennes du patrimoine qui ont lieu un week-end au mois de septembre), soit de façon régulière (château, musée, église, etc.), gratuitement ou au contraire moyennant un droit d'entrée et de visite payant.
* Le patrimoine dit « matériel » est surtout constitué des paysages construits, de l'architecture et de l'urbanisme, des sites archéologiques et géologiques, de certains aménagements de l'espace agricole ou forestier, d'objets d'art et mobilier, du patrimoine industriel (outils, instruments, machines, bâti, etc.).
* Le patrimoine dit « immatériel » peut revêtir différentes formes : chants, coutumes, danses, traditions gastronomiques, jeux, mythes, contes et légendes, petits métiers, témoignages, captation de techniques et de savoir-faire, documents écrits et d'archives (dont audiovisuelles), etc. Le patrimoine fait appel à l'idée d'un héritage légué par les générations qui nous ont précédés, et que nous devons transmettre intact ou augmenté aux générations futures, ainsi qu'à la nécessité de constituer un patrimoine pour demain. On dépasse donc largement la simple propriété personnelle (droit d'user « et d'abuser » selon le droit romain). Il relève du bien public et du bien commun. « La culture ne s'hérite pas, elle se conquiert. » — André Malraux (1935) (fr) +, Cultural heritage is the heritage of tangible and intangible heritage assets of a group or society that is inherited from past generations. Not all heritages of past generations are "heritage"; rather, heritage is a product of selection by society. Cultural heritage includes tangible culture (such as buildings, monuments, landscapes, books, works of art, and artifacts), intangible culture (such as folklore, traditions, language, and knowledge), and natural heritage (including culturally significant landscapes, and biodiversity). The term is often used in connection with issues relating to the protection of Indigenous intellectual property. The deliberate act of keeping cultural heritage from the present for the future is known as preservation (American English) or conservation (British English), which cultural and historical ethnic museums and cultural centers promote, though these terms may have more specific or technical meanings in the same contexts in the other dialect. Preserved heritage has become an anchor of the global tourism industry, a major contributor of economic value to local communities. Legal protection of cultural property comprises a number of international agreements and national laws.United Nations, UNESCO and Blue Shield International deal with the protection of cultural heritage. This also applies to the integration of United Nations peacekeeping. (en) +, El patrimonio cultural es la herencia cultural propia del pasado de una comunidad, mantenida hasta la actualidad y transmitida a las generaciones presentes. Las entidades que identifican y clasifican determinados bienes como relevantes para la cultura de un pueblo, de una región o de toda la humanidad, velan también por la salvaguarda y la protección de esos bienes, de forma tal que sean preservados debidamente para las generaciones futuras y que puedan ser objeto de estudio y fuente de experiencias emocionales para todos aquellos que los usen, disfruten o visiten. La Convención sobre la Protección del Patrimonio Mundial Cultural y Natural fue adoptada por la Conferencia General de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura (Unesco) el 16 de noviembre de 1972, cuyo objetivo era promover la identificación, protección y preservación del patrimonio cultural y natural considerado especialmente valioso para la humanidad. Como complemento de ese tratado, la Unesco aprobó, el 7 de octubre de 2003, la Convención para la Salvaguarda del Patrimonio Cultural Inmaterial, que definió que: Se entiende por patrimonio cultural inmaterial los usos, representaciones, expresiones, conocimientos y técnicas —junto con los instrumentos, objetos, artefactos y espacios culturales que les son inherentes— que las comunidades, los grupos y, en algunos casos, los individuos reconozcan como parte integrante de su patrimonio cultural.Este patrimonio cultural inmaterial, que se transmite de generación en generación, es recreado constantemente por las comunidades y grupos en función de su entorno, su interacción con la naturaleza y su historia, infundiéndoles un sentimiento de identidad y continuidad y contribuyendo así a promover el respeto de la diversidad cultural y la creatividad humana. Algunos patrimonialistas y museólogos que estudian los vínculos culturales con la naturaleza o el patrimonio natural han alertado sobre las consecuencias concretas de las alteraciones ambientales tanto en la música folklórica como en la producción de artesanías tradicionales y en la supervivencia de las deidades, mitos y leyendas populares. Sostienen que la destrucción de la naturaleza desdibuja la identidad de los pueblos. En particular, los de aquellos que mejor han conservado sus tradiciones o cosmovisiones, como suele ser el caso de los indígenas u aborígenes. (es)
Pasture (from the Latin pastus, past participle of pascere, "to feed") is land used for grazing. Pasture lands in the narrow sense are enclosed tracts of farmland, grazed by domesticated livestock, such as horses, cattle, sheep, or swine. The vegetation of tended pasture, forage, consists mainly of grasses, with an interspersion of legumes and other forbs (non-grass herbaceous plants). Pasture is typically grazed throughout the summer, in contrast to meadow which is ungrazed or used for grazing only after being mown to make hay for animal fodder. Pasture in a wider sense additionally includes rangelands, other unenclosed pastoral systems, and land types used by wild animals for grazing or browsing. Pasture lands in the narrow sense are distinguished from rangelands by being managed through more intensive agricultural practices of seeding, irrigation, and the use of fertilizers, while rangelands grow primarily native vegetation, managed with extensive practices like controlled burning and regulated intensity of grazing. Soil type, minimum annual temperature, and rainfall are important factors in pasture management. Sheepwalk is an area of grassland where sheep can roam freely. The productivity of sheepwalk is measured by the number of sheep per area. This is dependent, among other things, on the underlying rock. Sheepwalk is also the name of townlands in County Roscommon, Ireland, and County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland. Unlike factory farming, which entails in its most intensive form entirely trough-feeding, managed or unmanaged pasture is the main food source for ruminants. Pasture feeding dominates livestock farming where the land makes crop sowing or harvesting (or both) difficult, such as in arid or mountainous regions, where types of camel, goat, antelope, yak and other ruminants live which are well suited to the more hostile terrain and very rarely factory-farmed. In more humid regions, pasture grazing is managed across a large global area for free range and organic farming. Certain types of pasture suit the diet, evolution and metabolism of particular animals, and their fertilising and tending of the land may over generations result in the pasture combined with the ruminants in question being integral to a particular ecosystem. (en)
La pauvreté désigne dans une société donnée le fait d'être dans une situation d'infériorité matérielle par rapport aux individus les plus favorisés; cela se traduit notamment par des difficultés à subvenir à ses besoins et à ceux de ses proches, mais aussi par une stigmatisation de la part des personnes plus riches. Il n'existe cependant pas de définition complètement consensuelle et universelle de la pauvreté. La satisfaction des besoins de base est jugée comme indispensable à la vie décente d'un être humain; avec le progrès technique et l'amélioration des conditions de vie dans les pays développés, une définition basée sur des seuils de pauvreté relatifs au revenu médian a vu le jour sans lien avec la satisfaction de ces besoins. Autrement dit, le nombre de pauvres est celui qui correspond à la totalité des personnes titulaires d'un revenu par habitant inférieur à un certain pourcentage du revenu médian. Ce seuil est généralement de 20 %. Le terme « pauvreté », relatif à celui de richesse, fait ainsi davantage référence aux situations d'inégalités économiques et politiques entre individus et entre sociétés. Les sciences économiques tentent d'expliquer l'existence de la pauvreté, ainsi que les mécanismes de l'accroissement de la richesse. Les gouvernements ont un souci universel du phénomène de la pauvreté, et s’efforcent de la contrôler, si ce n’est par égard pour la vie des individus et des groupes de personnes parce que des conflits entre les pauvres et les riches ont jalonné l'histoire du monde, et peuvent donc menacer les pouvoirs existants. La pauvreté est une cause majeure de souffrance, et l'égalité entre les êtres humains est au centre de diverses conceptions morales, philosophiques et religieuses. Il existe différents types de pauvreté. (fr) +, Poverty is the state of having few material possessions or little income. Poverty can have diverse social, economic, and political causes and effects. When evaluating poverty in statistics or economics there are two main measures: absolute poverty compares income against the amount needed to meet basic personal needs, such as food, clothing, and shelter; relative poverty measures when a person cannot meet a minimum level of living standards, compared to others in the same time and place. The definition of relative poverty varies from one country to another, or from one society to another. Statistically, as of 2019, most of the world's population live in poverty: in PPP dollars, 85% of people live on less than $30 per day, two-thirds live on less than $10 per day, and 10% live on less than $1.90 per day (extreme poverty). According to the World Bank Group in 2020, more than 40% of the poor live in conflict-affected countries. Even when countries experience economic development, the poorest citizens of middle-income countries frequently do not gain an adequate share of their countries' increased wealth to leave poverty. Governments and non-governmental organizations have experimented with a number of different policies and programs for poverty alleviation, such as electrification in rural areas or housing first policies in urban areas. The international policy frameworks for poverty alleviation, established by the United Nations in 2015, are summarized in Sustainable Development Goal 1: "No Poverty". Social forces, such as gender, disability, race and ethnicity, can exacerbate issues of poverty—with women, children and minorities frequently bearing unequal burdens of poverty. Moreover, impoverished individuals are more vulnerable to the effects of other social issues, such as the environmental effects of industry or the impacts of climate change or other natural disasters or extreme weather events. Poverty can also make other social problems worse; economic pressures on impoverished communities frequently play a part in deforestation, biodiversity loss and ethnic conflict. For this reason, the UN's Sustainable Development Goals and other international policy programs, such as the international recovery from COVID-19, emphasize the connection of poverty alleviation with other societal goals. (en) , La pobreza es una situación en la cual no es posible satisfacer las necesidades físicas y psicológicas básicas de una persona, por falta de recursos como la alimentación, la vivienda, la educación, la asistencia sanitaria, el agua potable o la electricidad. La pobreza puede afectar a una persona, a un grupo de personas o a toda una región geográfica. También se suele considerar como pobreza a las situaciones en que la falta de medios económicos impide acceder a tales recursos. Situaciones como el desempleo, la falta de ingresos o un nivel bajo de los mismos. Asimismo la pobreza puede ser el resultado de procesos de exclusión social, segregación social o marginación (de manera inversa, el que una persona se vuelva pobre también puede conducirla a la marginación). En muchos países del tercer mundo, la pobreza se presenta cuando no es posible cubrir las necesidades incluidas en la canasta básica de alimentos o se dan problemas de subdesarrollo. En los estudios y estadísticas sociales se distingue entre pobreza y pobreza extrema (también llamada miseria o indigencia), definiéndose la pobreza extrema como aquella situación en la que una persona no puede acceder a la canasta básica de alimentos (CBA) que le permita consumir una cantidad básica de calorías por día, y pobreza como aquella situación en la que una persona no puede acceder a una canasta básica de bienes y servicios más amplia (CBT), que incluye, además de los alimentos, rubros como los servicios públicos, la salud, la educación, la vivienda o la vestimenta. El Banco Mundial ha cuantificado ambas líneas, estableciendo desde octubre de 2015, la línea de pobreza extrema (indigencia) en 1,90 dólares norteamericanos ($) por día y la línea de pobreza en 3,10 $ diarios. Según el informe de Desarrollo Humano de 2014 del Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD), uno de cada cinco habitantes del mundo vive en situación de pobreza o pobreza extrema. Es decir, 1 500 millones de personas no tienen acceso a saneamiento, agua potable, electricidad, educación básica o al sistema de salud, además de soportar carencias económicas incompatibles con una vida digna. En la mayoría de contextos sociales la pobreza se considera algo negativo y penoso, si bien en algunos ámbitos de carácter espiritual o religioso la pobreza voluntaria se considera una virtud por implicar la renuncia a los bienes materiales —voto monástico de pobreza. Históricamente la pobreza ha sido valorada de muy distinta forma según la ideología o ideologías de cada época; así ocurría en el pensamiento económico medieval. Distinta de la pobreza voluntaria es la vida austera o vida sencilla, cercana a posiciones tanto espirituales como ecologistas —decrecimiento. (es)
Un paysage est une étendue spatiale couverte par un point de vue. C'est un ensemble interdépendant au fonctionnement, à la mécanique, autonome formé d'une continuité d'éléments sédimentés et dont l'on ne perçoit qu'une globalité. Son caractère « résulte de l'action et de l'interaction de facteurs naturels et/ou humains » ajoute le Conseil de l'Europe. La notion de paysage a une dimension esthétique forte, voire picturale ou littéraire en tant que représentation, mais elle recouvre de nombreuses acceptions et le paysage manifeste aussi les politiques d'aménagement du territoire, voire la géopolitique. Un paysage est d'abord appréhendé visuellement, mais les parfums et ambiances sonores en modifient aussi la perception (on parle parfois de paysage sonore). Par extension, comme le terme panorama, dans des expressions comme « paysage politique » ou « paysage médiatique », il peut désigner un ensemble contextuel, la vision des choses à un temps donné, le paysage étant en constante évolution. (fr) +, A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or man-made features, often considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal. A landscape includes the physical elements of geophysically defined landforms such as (ice-capped) mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of land use, buildings, and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect a living synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity. The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates one region from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to people's lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park or wilderness. The Earth has a vast range of landscapes, including the icy landscapes of polar regions, mountainous landscapes, vast arid desert landscapes, islands, and coastal landscapes, densely forested or wooded landscapes including past boreal forests and tropical rainforests, and agricultural landscapes of temperate and tropical regions. The activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping. (en) +
Un paysage est une étendue spatiale couverte par un point de vue. C'est un ensemble interdépendant au fonctionnement, à la mécanique, autonome formé d'une continuité d'éléments sédimentés et dont l'on ne perçoit qu'une globalité. Son caractère « résulte de l'action et de l'interaction de facteurs naturels et/ou humains » ajoute le Conseil de l'Europe. La notion de paysage a une dimension esthétique forte, voire picturale ou littéraire en tant que représentation, mais elle recouvre de nombreuses acceptions et le paysage manifeste aussi les politiques d'aménagement du territoire, voire la géopolitique. Un paysage est d'abord appréhendé visuellement, mais les parfums et ambiances sonores en modifient aussi la perception (on parle parfois de paysage sonore). Par extension, comme le terme panorama, dans des expressions comme « paysage politique » ou « paysage médiatique », il peut désigner un ensemble contextuel, la vision des choses à un temps donné, le paysage étant en constante évolution. (fr) +, A landscape is the visible features of an area of land, its landforms, and how they integrate with natural or man-made features, often considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal. A landscape includes the physical elements of geophysically defined landforms such as (ice-capped) mountains, hills, water bodies such as rivers, lakes, ponds and the sea, living elements of land cover including indigenous vegetation, human elements including different forms of land use, buildings, and structures, and transitory elements such as lighting and weather conditions. Combining both their physical origins and the cultural overlay of human presence, often created over millennia, landscapes reflect a living synthesis of people and place that is vital to local and national identity. The character of a landscape helps define the self-image of the people who inhabit it and a sense of place that differentiates one region from other regions. It is the dynamic backdrop to people's lives. Landscape can be as varied as farmland, a landscape park or wilderness. The Earth has a vast range of landscapes, including the icy landscapes of polar regions, mountainous landscapes, vast arid desert landscapes, islands, and coastal landscapes, densely forested or wooded landscapes including past boreal forests and tropical rainforests, and agricultural landscapes of temperate and tropical regions. The activity of modifying the visible features of an area of land is referred to as landscaping. (en) +, El concepto de paisaje (extensión de terreno que se ve desde un lugar o sitio) se utiliza de manera diferente por varios campos de estudio, aunque todos los usos del término llevan implícita la existencia de un sujeto observador (el que visualiza) y de un objeto observado (el terreno), del que se destacan fundamentalmente sus cualidades visuales, espaciales. El paisaje, desde el punto de vista geográfico, es el objeto de estudio primordial y el documento geográfico básico a partir del cual se hace la geografía. En general, se entiende por paisaje cualquier área de la superficie terrestre producto de la interacción de los diferentes factores presentes en ella y que tienen un reflejo visual en el espacio. El paisaje geográfico es por tanto el aspecto que adquiere el espacio geográfico.El paisaje, desde el punto de vista artístico, sobre todo pictórico, es la representación gráfica de un terreno extenso. Con el mismo significado se utiliza el término país (no debe confundirse con el concepto político de país). El paisaje también puede ser el objeto material a crear o modificar por el arte mismo. En literatura, la descripción del paisaje es una que se denomina topografía (término que también da nombre a la topografía como ciencia y técnica que se emplea para la representación gráfica de la superficie terrestre). En construcciones literarias y ensayísticas es habitual comparar el paisaje con el paisanaje (de ), es decir, el medio con los grupos humanos. Véanse también: Ecología del paisaje, Paisaje sustentable, Área protegida y Paisaje sonoro. (es) +
La permaculture est un concept systémique qui vise à créer des écosystèmes respectant la biodiversité. Il est inspiré par la nature et son fonctionnement (biomimétisme ou écomimétisme). C'est une méthode consistant à définir et mettre en pratique des cultures, des lieux de vie et des systèmes agricoles humains utilisant des principes d'écologie et le savoir des sociétés traditionnelles pour reproduire la diversité, la stabilité et la résilience des écosystèmes naturels. À l'origine c’est une forme d'agriculture naturelle issue des travaux de l'agriculteur, biologiste et philosophe japonais Masanobu Fukuoka (1913-2008). Ce concept a été théorisé dans les années 1970 par les Australiens Bill Mollison (biologiste) et David Holmgren (essayiste). Le terme « permaculture » signifiait initialement « culture permanente » (de l'anglais « permanent agriculture ») ; puis avec le temps il a été étendu pour signifier « culture de ce qui est permanent dans le sens (sociologique) de pérenne ou viable ». En effet, les aspects sociaux font partie intégrante d'un système véritablement durable. Cette dernière signification est toutefois sujette à polémique. Avec ce sens étendu, la permaculture forme des individus à une éthique ainsi qu'à un ensemble de principes. L'objectif étant de permettre à ces individus de concevoir leur propre environnement et ainsi de créer des habitats humains plus autonomes, durables et résilients, en s'inspirant des fonctionnements naturels locaux. L'idée est d'atteindre une société moins dépendante des systèmes industriels de production et de distribution (identifiés par Bill Mollison comme le fondement de la destruction systématique des écosystèmes). La permaculture utilise entre autres des notions d'écologie, de paysage, d'agriculture biologique, d'agroécologie, de biomimétisme, d'éthique, de philosophie et de pédologie. La permaculture invite à mettre ces aspects théoriques en relation avec les observations réalisées sur le terrain de façon harmonieuse. (fr) , Permacultura es un sistema de principios de diseño agrícola y económico, político y social basado en los patrones y las características del ecosistema natural. Tiene muchas ramas, entre las que se incluyen el diseño ecológico, la ingeniería ecológica, diseño ambiental, la construcción y la gestión integrada de los recursos hídricos, que desarrolla la arquitectura sostenible y los sistemas agrícolas de automantenimiento modelados desde los ecosistemas naturales. El término «permacultura» (como un método sistemático) fue acuñado por primera vez por los australianos Bill Mollison y David Holmgren en 1978. La palabra permacultura (en inglés permaculture) es una contracción, que originalmente se refería a la ‘agricultura permanente’, pero se amplió para significar también cultura permanente, debido a que se ha visto que los aspectos sociales son parte integral de un sistema verdaderamente sostenible, inspirado en la filosofía de la Agricultura Natural de Masanobu Fukuoka. Desde sus inicios a finales de los años 1970, la permacultura se ha definido como una respuesta positiva a la crisis ambiental y social que estamos viviendo. En palabras de Bill Mollison: La permacultura es la filosofía de trabajar con, y no en contra de la naturaleza; de observación prolongada y reflexiva, en lugar de labores prolongadas e inconscientes; de entender a las plantas y los animales en todas sus funciones, en lugar de tratar a las áreas como sistemas mono-productivos. (es) +, Permaculture is an approach to land management and settlement design that adopts arrangements observed in flourishing natural ecosystems. It includes a set of design principles derived using whole-systems thinking. It applies these principles in fields such as regenerative agriculture, town planning, rewilding, and community resilience. Permaculture originally came from "permanent agriculture", but was later adjusted to mean "permanent culture", incorporating social aspects. The term was coined in 1978 by Bill Mollison and David Holmgren, who formulated the concept in opposition to modern industrialized methods instead adopting a more traditional or "natural" approach to agriculture. Permaculture has many branches including ecological design, ecological engineering, regenerative design, environmental design, and construction. It also includes integrated water resources management, sustainable architecture, and regenerative and self-maintained habitat and agricultural systems modeled from natural ecosystems. Permaculture uses creative design processes based on whole-systems thinking, considering all materials and energies in flow that affect or are affected by proposed changes. In practical terms it means that before, for example, modifying overland water flow, one fully considers both upstream and downstream effects in the short and long terms. Or, when looking at a "problem", such as brushy vegetation, one considers how removing or altering it will affect soil and wildlife, and how these interacting forces would evolve over time and space. Permaculture has been criticised as being poorly defined and unscientific. Critics have pushed for less reliance on anecdote and extrapolation from ecological first principles, in favor of peer-reviewed research to substantiate productivity claims and to clarify methodology. Peter Harper from the Centre for Alternative Technology suggests that most of what passes for permaculture has no relevance to real problems. (en) +
Les peuples autochtones, ou peuples indigènes, sont « les descendants de ceux qui habitaient dans un pays ou une région géographique à l'époque où des groupes de population de cultures ou d'origines ethniques différentes y sont arrivés et sont devenus par la suite prédominants, par la conquête, l'occupation, la colonisation ou d'autres moyens ». Les peuples autochtones représentent environ 370 millions de personnes dans le monde, vivant dans plus de 70 pays. D'autres termes ont parfois été utilisés pour les désigner, comme aborigène, « peuple premier », « peuple racine », « première nation » ou « peuple natif », succédant à l'appellation péjorative de « peuple primitif », mais tous officiellement délaissés au profit de peuple autochtone. (fr) +, Indigenous peoples are culturally distinct ethnic groups whose members are directly descended from the earliest known inhabitants of a particular geographic region and, to some extent, maintain the language and culture of those original peoples. The term Indigenous was first, in its modern context, used by Europeans, who used it to differentiate the Indigenous peoples of the Americas from the European settlers of the Americas and from the Africans who were brought to the Americas as enslaved people. The term may have first been used in this context by Sir Thomas Browne in 1646, who stated "and although in many parts thereof there be at present swarms of Negroes serving under the Spaniard, yet were they all transported from Africa, since the discovery of Columbus; and are not indigenous or proper natives of America." Peoples are usually described as "Indigenous" when they maintain traditions or other aspects of an early culture that is associated with the first inhabitants of a given region. Not all Indigenous peoples share this characteristic, as many have adopted substantial elements of a colonizing culture, such as dress, religion or language. Indigenous peoples may be settled in a given region (sedentary), exhibit a nomadic lifestyle across a large territory, or be resettled, but they are generally historically associated with a specific territory on which they depend. Indigenous societies are found in every inhabited climate zone and continent of the world except Antarctica. There are approximately five thousand Indigenous nations throughout the world. Indigenous peoples' homelands have historically been colonized by larger ethnic groups, who justified colonization with beliefs of racial and religious superiority, land use or economic opportunity. Thousands of Indigenous nations throughout the world are currently living in countries where they are not a majority ethnic group. Indigenous peoples continue to face threats to their sovereignty, economic well-being, languages, ways of knowing, and access to the resources on which their cultures depend. Indigenous rights have been set forth in international law by the United Nations, the International Labour Organization, and the World Bank. In 2007, the UN issued a Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) to guide member-state national policies to the collective rights of Indigenous peoples, including their rights to protect their cultures, identities, languages, ceremonies, and access to employment, health, education and natural resources. Estimates of the total global population of Indigenous peoples usually range from 250 million to 600 million. Official designations and terminology of who is considered Indigenous vary between countries. In settler states colonized by Europeans, such as in the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, and Oceania, Indigenous status is generally unproblematically applied to groups directly descended from the peoples who have lived there prior to European settlement. In Asia and Africa, where the majority of Indigenous peoples live, Indigenous population figures are less clear and may fluctuate dramatically as states tend to underreport the population of Indigenous peoples, or define them by different terminology. (en)
La piraterie est une forme de banditisme pratiquée sur mer par des marins appelés pirates. Cependant, les pirates ne se limitent pas aux pillages de navire, mais attaquent parfois de petites villes côtières. (fr) +, Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable goods. Those who conduct acts of piracy are called pirates, while the dedicated ships that pirates use are called pirate ships. The earliest documented instances of piracy were in the 14th century BC, when the Sea Peoples, a group of ocean raiders, attacked the ships of the Aegean and Mediterranean civilisations. Narrow channels which funnel shipping into predictable routes have long created opportunities for piracy, as well as for privateering and commerce raiding. Historic examples include the waters of Gibraltar, the Strait of Malacca, Madagascar, the Gulf of Aden, and the English Channel, whose geographic structures facilitated pirate attacks. Privateering uses similar methods to piracy, but the captain acts under orders of the state authorising the capture of merchant ships belonging to an enemy nation, making it a legitimate form of war-like activity by non-state actors. A land-based parallel is the ambushing of travelers by bandits and brigands in highways and mountain passes. While the term can include acts committed in the air, on land (especially across national borders or in connection with taking over and robbing a car or train), or in other major bodies of water or on a shore, in cyberspace, as well as the fictional possibility of space piracy, it generally refers to maritime piracy. It does not normally include crimes committed against people traveling on the same vessel as the perpetrator (e.g. one passenger stealing from others on the same vessel). Piracy or pirating is the name of a specific crime under customary international law and also the name of a number of crimes under the municipal law of a number of states. In the early 21st century, seaborne piracy against transport vessels remains a significant issue (with estimated worldwide losses of US$16 billion per year in 2004), particularly in the waters between the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, off the Somali coast, and also in the Strait of Malacca and Singapore. Currently, pirates armed with automatic weapons, such as assault rifles, and machine guns, grenades and rocket propelled grenades use small motorboats to attack and board ships, a tactic that takes advantage of the small number of crew members on modern cargo vessels and transport ships. They also use larger vessels, known as "mother ships", to supply the smaller motorboats. The international community is facing many challenges in bringing modern pirates to justice, as these attacks often occur in international waters. Some nations have used their naval forces to protect private ships from pirate attacks and to pursue pirates, and some private vessels use armed security guards, high-pressure water cannons, or sound cannons to repel boarders, and use radar to avoid potential threats. A romanticised version of piracy in the Age of Sail has long been a part of Western pop culture. Captain Charles Johnson's A General History of the Pyrates, published in London in 1724, contained biographies of several pirates of the "golden age" and brought them to public attention. Pirates of the era have been further popularised and stereotyped by many subsequent works of fiction, most notably by the novels Treasure Island (1883) and Peter Pan (1911), two film adaptions of Treasure Island (1934 and 1950) and, more recently, by the Pirates of the Caribbean film franchise, which began in 2003. (en)
En informatique, une plateforme ou plate-forme est un environnement permettant la gestion ou l'utilisation de services applicatifs. La terminologie peut notamment désigner :
* un système d'exploitation ou un noyau ;
* un environnement d'exécution comme une machine virtuelle ;
* un environnement de développement, à condition qu'il intègre son environnement d'exécution ;
* un serveur web ou d'applications, notamment une plateforme de téléchargement ;
* une application web ou logicielle, par exemple :
* un espace numérique de travail (ENT),
* un SGBD,
* une ,
* une plateforme de vidéo à la demande,
* une plateforme de jeux vidéo,
* une plateforme de réseaux sociaux,
* un centre de maintenance pour un appareil ou un réseau informatique,
* une plateforme d'intermédiation.
* Portail de l’informatique (fr) +, A computing platform or digital platform is an environment in which a piece of software is executed. It may be the hardware or the operating system (OS), even a web browser and associated application programming interfaces, or other underlying software, as long as the program code is executed with it. Computing platforms have different abstraction levels, including a computer architecture, an OS, or runtime libraries. A computing platform is the stage on which computer programs can run. A platform can be seen both as a constraint on the software development process, in that different platforms provide different functionality and restrictions; and as an assistant to the development process, in that they provide low-level functionality ready-made. For example, an OS may be a platform that abstracts the underlying differences in hardware and provides a generic command for saving files or accessing the network. (en) +, En informática, plataforma (a veces también denominada plataforma digital o plataforma informática o plataforma computacional) es un sistema que sirve como base para hacer funcionar determinados módulos de hardware o de software con los que es compatible. Dicho sistema está definido por un estándar alrededor del cual se determina una y una plataforma de software (incluyendo ). Al definir plataformas se establecen los tipos compatibles de arquitectura, sistema operativo, lenguaje de programación o interfaz de usuario. Ejemplos de plataformas son IBM-PC, que incluye las arquitecturas I386 (x86), IA64 o AMD64 (x86-64); Macintosh, que incluye la arquitectura Gecko y PowerPC; y SPARC. Existen programas multiplataforma que permiten ejecutarse en diversas plataformas. También existen emuladores, que son programas que permiten ejecutar desde una plataforma programas de otra emulando su funcionamiento, como por ejemplo UAE, que emula el hardware VICE, un emulador de los legendarios Commodore de mitad de los 80.. (es) +
Le pluralisme juridique est un courant juridique qui vise à rendre compte de la variété des modes de production des règles de droit et de la complexité du phénomène juridique. Le pluralisme juridique peut désigner ainsi soit l'existence de plusieurs systèmes juridiques pour un même territoire, soit une approche du droit international public qui insiste sur la pluralité des ordres juridiques (nationaux, régionaux et international). Le pluralisme juridique provient du mot latin pluralis : système reconnaissant l'existence de plusieurs modes de pensée, de comportement, d'opinions politiques et religieuses, de plusieurs partis politiques. le terme juridique est un adjectif provenant du latin juridicus et dérivé de jus et juris, révélant que l'expression qu'elle qualifie est relative au droit dans son sens le plus large. Expliquer ces termes paraît indispensable pour définir la notion de pluralisme juridique. (fr) +, Legal pluralism is the existence of multiple legal systems within one society and/or geographical area. Plural legal systems are particularly prevalent in former colonies, where the law of a former colonial authority may exist alongside more traditional legal systems (customary law). In postcolonial societies a recognition of pluralism may be viewed as a roadblock to nation-building and development. Anthropologists view legal pluralism in the light of historical struggles over sovereignty, nationhood and legitimacy. (en) +, El Pluralismo Jurídico hace referencia a la existencia de múltiples sistemas jurídicos en una misma área geográfica. Esta definición implica tres cosas: (i) reconocer que el derecho oficial, el derecho del estado, no es el único existente; (ii) que distintas prácticas jurídicas ( i.e. justicia indígena, justicias comunitarias) pueden ser reconocidas como distintas formas de derecho; (iii) lo anterior supone, por tanto, que el reconocimiento de soberanía que algunos estados establecen al pretender el monopolio de la fuerza jurídica, se relativiza. Pluralismo Jurídico es la coexistencia dentro un Estado de diversos conjuntos de normas jurídicas positivas en un plano de igualdad, respeto y coordinación. Machicado, Jorge El concepto de pluralismo jurídico supone una definición alternativa de derecho, pues si se adopta la definición clásica, el derecho se reduce a las normas producidas exclusivamente por el Estado. Si se acepta la noción de pluralismo jurídico, se pone en cuestión la idea del monopolio de la fuerza estatal. El pluralismo jurídico se enfrenta a escenarios de etnocentrismo, violencia, estigmatización y altas cargas de racismo; ya que si bien las fuentes plurales de su sentido son de diversas comunidades ético-políticas; es mayor la presencia en el territorio americano de fuentes étnicas, específicamente indígenas. En este mismo sentido es importante reconocer que las prácticas indígenas no son manifestaciones exclusivas de un grupo poblacional auto adscrito por su identidad cultural; sino que se reproduce además en las poblaciones denominadas como mestizas a través de sus prácticas, costumbres, actividades, en suma, su "memoria vivida y practicada", a decir de Aquiles Hervas Parra es el conjunto de manifestaciones de las relaciones practicadas y vividas en cambios generacionales que se transmiten de un grupo a otro, y que en muchos de los casos no se percibe consciencia de su existencia en el sujeto mismo. Desde una perspectiva socio-jurídica, puede entenderse como derecho cualquier conjunto de normas que regulen la conducta humana, y que sea reconocido por sus destinatarios como vinculante. Según Boaventura de Sousa Santos, cualquier orden social que de cuenta de retórica, violencia y burocracia, puede ser considerado como derecho. El comercio informal, la presencia de grupos guerrilleros o paramilitares, o la presencia de etnias o en un Estado, son algunos ejemplos de pluralismo jurídico. (es)
La pollution est la destruction ou dégradation d'un écosystème ou de la biosphère par l'introduction, généralement humaine, d'entités (physiques, chimiques ou biologiques), ou de radiations altérant le fonctionnement de cet écosystème.La pollution a des effets importants sur la santé et la biosphère, comme en témoigne l'exposition aux polluants et le réchauffement climatique qui transforme le climat de la Terre et son écosystème, en entraînant l'apparition de maladies inconnues jusqu'alors dans certaines zones géographiques, des migrations de certaines espèces, voire leur extinction si elles ne peuvent s'adapter à leur nouvel environnement biophysique. La Seconde Guerre mondiale est suivie d'une prise de conscience des répercussions des activités humaines sur l'environnement et la santé, parallèlement à l'approfondissement de l'écologisme et de l'écologie théorisée dès 1886 par Ernst Haeckel. Les préoccupations de santé-environnementale conduisent les gouvernements à prendre des mesures pour limiter l'empreinte écologique des populations humaines et pour contrer des activités humaines contaminantes. En 2012 selon l'OMS, plus de 7 millions de personnes sont mortes prématurément à cause de la pollution de l'air (extérieur et domestique) ; l'Asie et le Pacifique étant les régions les plus touchées. En 2017, la revue The Lancet a estimé qu'au moins 9 millions de personnes sont prématurément mortes en 2015 à cause de la pollution (soit une mort « prématurée », c'est-à-dire avant 65 ans, sur six). (fr) +, La contaminación ambiental o polución es la introducción de sustancias u otros elementos físicos en un medio, que provocan que este sea inseguro o no apto para su uso. El medio puede ser un ecosistema, un medio físico o un ser vivo. El contaminante puede ser una sustancia química o energía (como sonido, calor, luz o radiactividad). Es siempre una alteración negativa del estado natural del medio ambiente y, por lo general, se produce como consecuencia de la actividad humana considerándose una forma de impacto ambiental. La contaminación puede clasificarse según el tipo de fuente de donde proviene, o por la forma de contaminante que emite o medio que contamina. Existen muchos agentes contaminantes, entre ellos las sustancias químicas (como plaguicidas, cianuro, herbicidas y otros), los residuos urbanos, el petróleo o las radiaciones ionizantes. Todos estos pueden producir enfermedades, daños en los ecosistemas o el medioambiente. Además existen muchos contaminantes gaseosos que juegan un papel importante en diferentes fenómenos atmosféricos, como la generación de lluvia ácida, el debilitamiento de la capa de ozono y el cambio climático. Hay muchas formas de combatir la contaminación, así como legislaciones internacionales que regulan las emisiones contaminantes de los países que se adhieren a estas políticas. La contaminación está generalmente ligada al desarrollo económico y social. Actualmente muchas organizaciones internacionales como la ONU ubican al desarrollo sostenible como una de las formas de proteger al medioambiente para las actuales y futuras generaciones. En 2015, la contaminación causó la muerte a más de 9 millones de personas. (es) +, Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light). Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Although environmental pollution can be caused by natural events, the word pollution generally implies that the contaminants have an anthropogenic source – that is, a source created by human activities. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. In 2015, pollution killed nine million people worldwide (one in six deaths). This remained unchanged in 2019, with little real progress against pollution being identifiable. Air pollution accounted for 3⁄4 of these earlier deaths. Major forms of pollution include air pollution, light pollution, litter, noise pollution, plastic pollution, soil contamination, radioactive contamination, thermal pollution, visual pollution, and water pollution. (en) +
Le polycentrisme est un terme utilisé à la fois dans l'aménagement du territoire et dans la politologie. (fr) +, Polycentric law is a theoretical legal structure in which "providers" of legal systems compete or overlap in a given jurisdiction, as opposed to monopolistic statutory law according to which there is a sole provider of law for each jurisdiction. Devolution of this monopoly occurs by the principle of jurisprudence in which they rule according to higher law. (en) +, La ley policéntrica, en oposición a la ley de monopolio estatal, se refiere a un conjunto de sistemas jurídicos y jurisdicciones competidores y superpuestos, de base asociativa o Derecho privado y no territorial ni público. Siendo una propuesta contemporánea, la idea por sí misma no es reciente; antes de la aparición del Estado moderno, aproximadamente antes del año 1500, las leyes no eran de base territorial, sino más bien basadas en el parentesco, la raza, la zona de competencia (por ejemplo, el derecho religioso, , ley mercante), y así sucesivamente. El Imperio romano, por ejemplo, tenía el derecho romano para los romanos, pero en general dejaba los sistemas jurídicos nativos para los no romanos. La teoría policéntrica comparte la definición sobre la ley de Lon F. Fuller: [...] la empresa de someter la conducta humana al gobierno de las normas. A diferencia de la mayoría de la teorías modernas sobre la ley, esta visión trata a la ley como una actividad y considera un sistema jurídico como el producto de un esfuerzo sostenido intencionado. La moralidad de la ley, 1964 Ley, de manera definida, es legislación. Y si la ley es libre de ser creada por todo el mundo a través de contratos mutuos -no sólo por legisladores, abogados, funcionarios encargados de hacer cumplir la ley- entonces es posible (y para los teóricos policéntricos deseable) que muchos sistemas jurídicos diferentes coexistan. (es) +
Post-capitalism is a state in which the economic systems of the world can no longer be described as forms of capitalism. Various individuals and political ideologies have speculated on what would define such a world. According to classical Marxist and social evolutionary theories, post-capitalist societies may come about as a result of spontaneous evolution as capitalism becomes obsolete. Others propose models to intentionally replace capitalism. The most notable among them are socialism, anarchism, and degrowth. (en) +
Subsidiarity is a principle of social organization that holds that social and political issues should be dealt with at the most immediate or local level that is consistent with their resolution. The Oxford English Dictionary defines subsidiarity as "the principle that a central authority should have a subsidiary function, performing only those tasks which cannot be performed at a more local level". The concept is applicable in the fields of government, political science, neuropsychology, cybernetics, management and in military command (mission command). The OED adds that the term "subsidiarity" in English follows the early German usage of "Subsidiarität". More distantly, it is derived from the Latin verb subsidio (to aid or help), and the related noun subsidium (aid or assistance). The development of the concept of subsidiarity has roots in the natural law philosophy of Thomas Aquinas and was mediated by the social scientific theories of Luigi Taparelli, SJ, in his 1840–43 natural law treatise on the human person in society. In that work, Taparelli established the criteria of just social order, which he referred to as "hypotactical right" and which came to be termed subsidiarity following German influences. Another origin of the concept is in the writings of Calvinist law-philosopher Johannes Althaus who used the word "subsidia" in 1603. As a principle of just social order, it became one of the pillars of modern Catholic social teaching. Subsidiarity is a general principle of European Union law. In the United States of America, Article VI, Paragraph 2 of the constitution of the United States is known as the Supremacy Clause. This establishes that the federal constitution, and federal law generally, take precedence over state laws, and even state constitutions. The principle of States' Rights is sometimes interpreted as being established by the Tenth Amendment, which says that "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people." (en)
Peer production (also known as mass collaboration) is a way of producing goods and services that relies on self-organizing communities of individuals. In such communities, the labor of many people is coordinated towards a shared outcome. (en) +, La notion de travail collaboratif désigne un travail qui n'est plus fondé sur l'organisation hiérarchisée traditionnelle, et plus spécifiquement un mode de travail (éventuellement intégré dans un modèle économique de production) où collaborent de nombreuses personnes grâce aux technologies de l'information et de la communication, notamment les plateformes internet. Les outils informatiques permettent de maximiser la créativité et l'efficience d'un groupe associé à des projets d’envergure même si elles sont très dispersées dans l'espace et le temps. Le travail est souvent naturellement collectif et collaboratif, c'est-à-dire qu'il fait interagir plusieurs acteurs pour la réalisation de tâches qui visent à atteindre un but commun. Par exemple, le projet d'encyclopédie en ligne, libre et multilingue, Wikipédia est le résultat d'un travail collaboratif « en réseaux coopératifs ». (fr) +
Apparu au début du XXe siècle, le productivisme est « un système d'organisation de la vie économique dans lequel la production est donnée comme objectif premier ». Il ne doit pas être confondu avec la recherche de la productivité. (fr) +, Productivism or growthism is the belief that measurable productivity and growth are the purpose of human organization (e.g., work), and that "more production is necessarily good". Critiques of productivism center primarily on the limits to growth posed by a finite planet and extend into discussions of human procreation, the work ethic, and even alternative energy production. (en) +
La propriété est la « possession » d'un bien meuble ou immeuble ou d'une production intellectuelle, reconnue et consacrée par une autorité (divine ou humaine), la société, la loi, la raison générale ou le consentement universel, etc. C'est selon Pierre-Joseph Proudhon une usucapion ou une usurpation. La Révolution française a exalté le droit de propriété : inviolable et sacrée, selon l'article 17 de la Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen de 1789. Cet absolutisme de principe issu du mansipium romain sera dans les faits accompagné de limites de plus en plus nombreuses. En France la propriété est définie, par l'article 544 du Code civil, comme « le droit de jouir et disposer des choses de la manière la plus absolue, pourvu qu'on n'en fasse pas un usage prohibé par les lois ou par les règlements ». Le propriétaire en droit français ne perd pas son droit de propriété par le non-usage de la chose, la propriété a un caractère imprescriptible et ce droit de propriété peut être transmis aux héritiers. La propriété qui s'exerce sur des biens accepte son corollaire par lequel il est des choses qui n'appartiennent à personne et dont l'usage est commun à tous (Des lois de police règlent la manière d'en jouir), consacré par l'Article 714 du Code civil. Le terme « propriété », du latin juridique exproprias « propriété, caractère propre, spécifique » et « droit de possession, chose possédée » à l'époque impériale[Laquelle ?], conserve actuellement les deux mêmes sens[réf. souhaitée]. On traite ici du second, socialement plus important et plus disputé[réf. nécessaire] : un ensemble de droits qui confèrent des prérogatives exclusives à une ou plusieurs personnes sur des territoires, des objets, des êtres, des idées ou des méthodes, ainsi que les choses visées[Quoi ?]. (fr) +, Ownership is the state or fact of legal possession and control over property, which may be any asset, tangible or intangible. Ownership can involve multiple rights, collectively referred to as title, which may be separated and held by different parties. The process and mechanics of ownership are fairly complex: one can gain, transfer, and lose ownership of property in a number of ways. To acquire property one can purchase it with money, trade it for other property, win it in a bet, receive it as a gift, inherit it, find it, receive it as damages, earn it by doing work or performing services, make it, or homestead it. One can transfer or lose ownership of property by selling it for money, exchanging it for other property, giving it as a gift, misplacing it, or having it stripped from one's ownership through legal means such as eviction, foreclosure, seizure, or taking. Ownership is self-propagating in that the owner of any property will also own the economic benefits of that property. (en) +
Common ownership refers to holding the assets of an organization, enterprise or community indivisibly rather than in the names of the individual members or groups of members as common property. Forms of common ownership exist in every economic system. Common ownership of the means of production is a central goal of communist political movements as it is seen as a necessary democratic mechanism for the creation and continued function of a communist society. Advocates make a distinction between collective ownership and common property as the former refers to property owned jointly by agreement of a set of colleagues, such as producer cooperatives, whereas the latter refers to assets that are completely open for access, such as a public park freely available to everyone. (en) +
Intellectual property (IP) is a category of property that includes intangible creations of the human intellect. There are many types of intellectual property, and some countries recognize more than others. The best-known types are patents, copyrights, trademarks, and trade secrets. The modern concept of intellectual property developed in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. The term "intellectual property" began to be used in the 19th century, though it was not until the late 20th century that intellectual property became commonplace in the majority of the world's legal systems. The main purpose of intellectual property law is to encourage the creation of a wide variety of intellectual goods. To achieve this, the law gives people and businesses property rights to the information and intellectual goods they create, usually for a limited period of time. This gives economic incentive for their creation, because it allows people to benefit from the information and intellectual goods they create, and allows them to protect their ideas and prevent copying. These economic incentives are expected to stimulate innovation and contribute to the technological progress of countries, which depends on the extent of protection granted to innovators. The intangible nature of intellectual property presents difficulties when compared with traditional property like land or goods. Unlike traditional property, intellectual property is "indivisible", since an unlimited number of people can "consume" an intellectual good without its being depleted. Additionally, investments in intellectual goods suffer from problems of appropriation: Landowners can surround their land with a robust fence and hire armed guards to protect it, but producers of information or literature can usually do little to stop their first buyer from replicating it and selling it at a lower price. Balancing rights so that they are strong enough to encourage the creation of intellectual goods but not so strong that they prevent the goods' wide use is the primary focus of modern intellectual property law. (en) , La propriété intellectuelle est le domaine comportant l'ensemble des droits exclusifs accordés sur des créations intellectuelles.Elle comporte deux branches :
* la propriété littéraire et artistique, qui s'applique aux œuvres de l'esprit, est composée du droit d'auteur et des droits voisins ;
* la propriété industrielle, qui regroupe elle-même, d'une part, les créations utilitaires, comme le brevet d'invention et le certificat d'obtention végétale ou au contraire un droit de protection sui generis des obtentions végétales, et, d'autre part, les signes distinctifs, notamment la marque commerciale, le nom de domaine et l'appellation d'origine. Elle comprend un droit moral (extra-patrimonial) qui est le seul droit attaché à la personne de l'auteur de l’œuvre qui soit perpétuel, inaliénable et imprescriptible, et qui s'applique donc post mortem, même après que l'œuvre est placée dans le domaine public (soit 70 ans à compter du 1er janvier de l'année suivant la mort de l’auteur). C'est l'œuvre résultante, et sa forme, qui sont protégées, non les idées et les informations qui en sont à l'origine, et qui, elles, restent libres de droit. Ainsi, le « résumé » d'une œuvre écrite, ou la citation d'un titre dans une bibliographie ne sont pas considérés comme un emprunt à ce qui est protégé par le droit d'auteur dans l'œuvre. Certaines personnalités du mouvement du logiciel libre dénoncent l'escroquerie sémantique du concept de « propriété intellectuelle », de même le récent brevetage du vivant a suscité de vives controverses éthiques et juridiques. (fr) +
State ownership, also called government ownership and public ownership, is the ownership of an industry, asset, or enterprise by the state or a public body representing a community, as opposed to an individual or private party. Public ownership specifically refers to industries selling goods and services to consumers and differs from public goods and government services financed out of a government's general budget. Public ownership can take place at the national, regional, local, or municipal levels of government; or can refer to non-governmental public ownership vested in autonomous public enterprises. Public ownership is one of the three major forms of property ownership, differentiated from private, collective/cooperative, and common ownership. In market-based economies, state-owned assets are often managed and operated as joint-stock corporations with a government owning all or a controlling stake of the company's shares. This form is often referred to as a state-owned enterprise. A state-owned enterprise might variously operate as a not-for-profit corporation, as it may not be required to generate a profit; as a commercial enterprise in competitive sectors; or as a natural monopoly. Governments may also use the profitable entities they own to support the general budget. The creation of a state-owned enterprise from other forms of public property is called corporatization. In Soviet-type economies, state property was the dominant form of industry as property. The state held a monopoly on land and natural resources, and enterprises operated under the legal framework of a nominally planned economy, and thus according to different criteria than enterprises in market and mixed economies. Nationalization is a process of transferring private or municipal assets to a central government or state entity. Municipalization is the process of transferring private or state assets to a municipal government. (en) +
Information privacy is the relationship between the collection and dissemination of data, technology, the public expectation of privacy, contextual information norms, and the legal and political issues surrounding them. It is also known as data privacy or data protection. Data privacy is challenging since it attempts to use data while protecting an individual's privacy preferences and personally identifiable information. The fields of computer security, data security, and information security all design and use software, hardware, and human resources to address this issue. (en) +
La protection sociale est l'ensemble des mécanismes de prévoyance collective qui permettent aux individus ou aux ménages de faire face financièrement aux conséquences des risques sociaux, c'est-à-dire aux situations pouvant provoquer une baisse des ressources ou une hausse des dépenses (vieillesse, maladie, invalidité, chômage, charges de famille…). La protection sociale a donc à la fois des objectifs matériels (permettre aux individus de survivre quand ils sont malades, ou âgés, ou chargés de famille nombreuses, par exemple) et des objectifs sociaux (réduire l'inégalité devant les risques de la vie et assurer aux individus un minimum de revenus leur permettant d'être intégrés à la société). Elle est assurée par des institutions : c'est d'abord la Sécurité sociale (protection contre la maladie, la vieillesse, etc.), mais pas seulement elle. Il s'agit aussi de l'État lui-même dont le budget assure certaines dépenses (bourses scolaires, indemnisation des chômeurs en fin de droits, par exemple) et des collectivités territoriales (les Communes peuvent prendre en charge certaines dépenses des retraités ayant peu de ressources, comme les dépenses de transport, par exemple). Enfin, les administrations privées (les organisations caritatives, comme le Secours catholique ou le Secours populaire, par exemple) prennent en charge également une partie de la protection sociale, souvent en direction des populations les plus marginalisées. La plupart des dépenses de protection sociale sont financées par les prélèvements obligatoires. Les impôts permettent de payer les dépenses inscrites aux budgets de l'État ou des collectivités territoriales. Les cotisations sociales patronales et salariales permettent de financer les dépenses de la Sécurité sociale. Les administrations privées sont financées par les dons des particuliers et les subventions éventuellement reçues de l'État, des collectivités territoriales ou même des organismes supra-nationaux (l'Union européenne verse des subventions à certaines associations s'occupant de l'aide alimentaire ou du logement des exclus, par exemple). (fr) , Social protection, as defined by the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, is concerned with preventing, managing, and overcoming situations that adversely affect people's well-being. Social protection consists of policies and programs designed to reduce poverty and vulnerability by promoting efficient labour markets, diminishing people's exposure to risks, and enhancing their capacity to manage economic and social risks, such as unemployment, exclusion, sickness, disability, and old age. It is one of the targets of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 10 aimed at promoting greater equality. The most common types of social protection
* Labor market interventions are policies and programs designed to promote employment, the efficient operation of labor markets, and the protection of workers.
* Social insurance mitigates risks associated with unemployment, ill-health, disability, work-related injury, and old age, such as health insurance or unemployment insurance.
* Social assistance is when resources, either cash or in-kind, are transferred to vulnerable individuals or households with no other means of adequate support, including single parents, the homeless, or the physically or mentally challenged. (en) +
R
Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge". It involves the collection, organization and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular attentiveness to controlling sources of bias and error. These activities are characterized by a to accounting and controlling for biases in t. A research project may be an expansion on past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole. The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, and the research and development (R&D) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on epistemologies, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms of research: scientific, humanities, artistic, economic, social, business, marketing, practitioner research, life, technological, etc. The scientific study of research practices is known as meta-research. (en) +
Un réfugié – au sens de la Convention du 28 juillet 1951 relative au statut des réfugiés – est une personne qui se trouve hors du pays dont elle a la nationalité ou dans lequel elle a sa résidence habituelle ; qui craint avec raison d’être persécutée du fait de son appartenance communautaire, de sa religion, de sa nationalité, de son appartenance à un certain groupe social ou de ses opinions politiques ; et qui ne peut ou ne veut se réclamer de la protection de ce pays ou y retourner en raison de ladite crainte. Les personnes essayant d'obtenir le statut de réfugié sont appelées demandeurs d'asile. Les demandes d'asile faites dans les pays industrialisés se fondent le plus souvent sur des critères et des motifs politiques et religieux. Le Haut Commissariat des Nations unies pour les réfugiés (UNHCR ou HCR dans l'espace francophone) a pour but de défendre les droits et la sécurité des réfugiés et des demandeurs d'asile. Cette organisation onusienne estime que, en 2015, il y avait 16,1 millions réfugiés dans le monde, soit 60 % de plus que la décennie présente. De son côté, l'UNRWA, une organisation qui seulement aide Palestiniens dans le Proche-Orient estime, il y avait en outre 5,2 millions réfugiés palestiniens (car l'UNRWA considère également les descendants de réfugiés comme eux-mêmes réfugiés, à la différence du HCR). Selon l'UNICEF, environ 31 millions d'enfants étaient réfugiés fin 2015, et 17 millions étaient déplacés à l'intérieur de leur pays. (fr) +, A refugee, conventionally speaking, is a displaced person who has crossed national borders and who cannot or is unwilling to return home due to well-founded fear of persecution. Such a person may be called an asylum seeker until granted by the contracting state or the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) if they formally make a claim for asylum.The lead international agency coordinating refugee protection is the United Nations Office of the UNHCR. The United Nations has a second office for refugees, the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA), which is solely responsible for supporting the large majority of Palestinian refugees. (en) +
Regulation is the management of complex systems according to a set of rules and trends. In systems theory, these types of rules exist in various fields of biology and society, but the term has slightly different meanings according to context. For example:
* in biology, gene regulation and metabolic regulation allow living organisms to adapt to their environment and maintain homeostasis;
* in government, typically regulation means stipulations of the delegated legislation which is drafted by subject-matter experts to enforce primary legislation;
* in business, industry self-regulation occurs through self-regulatory organizations and trade associations which allow industries to set and enforce rules with less government involvement; and,
* in psychology, self-regulation theory is the study of how individuals regulate their thoughts and behaviors to reach goals. (en) +
La résilience communautaire (ou résilience collective) est la capacité d'une communauté de continuer à vivre, fonctionner, se développer et s'épanouir après un traumatisme ou une catastrophe. Une communauté résiliente est un groupement de personnes structuré et organisé pour s'adapter rapidement au changement, surmonter un traumatisme, tout en maintenant sa cohésion et des relations ouvertes avec le reste du monde. Elle s'efforce d'améliorer son quotidien en tissant à nouveau du lien social, en misant davantage sur la solidarité. La résilience communautaire se veut l'application concrète du concept de résilience à l'échelle d'une communauté. L'homme est un être social, étroitement lié à son entourage, qui s'épanouit et s'organise en groupe. L'homme peut être exposé à des traumatismes d'ordre personnel (comme la perte d'un proche, la maladie), mais aussi à des événements extérieurs, qui peuvent affecter sa communauté (catastrophe naturelle, choc économique, rupture dans les réseaux d'approvisionnement, etc.). De ce fait, son autonomie au sein de la société est relative et surtout fragile. L'homme moderne est généralement dépendant des chaînes logistiques qui permettent l'approvisionnement des énergies, des biens et des services. Développer la résilience collective passe donc inévitablement par le développement de l'autonomie du groupe et par un travail de dépassement du traumatisme, au niveau personnel et collectif. La résilience individuelle est étroitement liée à une faculté de résilience collective. Un parallèle peut être fait avec le domaine de la santé : la résilience du corps ne concerne qu'un seul individu, mais dans d'autres domaines comme la traumatologie, les séquelles non organiques (psychologiques ou sociopsychologiques) se considèrent dans un contexte de relation avec l'autre. La résilience d'un couple, d'une famille, concerne bien sûr ses membres, mais aussi leur entourage et les générations à venir : les parents cherchent généralement à offrir à leurs enfants une situation qu'ils considèrent comme « meilleure » que celle qu'ils ont connue, avec des effets collectifs souvent imprévus. (fr) , Community resilience is the sustained ability of a community to use available resources (energy, communication, transportation, food, etc.) to respond to, withstand, and recover from adverse situations (e.g. economic collapse to global catastrophic risks). This allows for the adaptation and growth of a community after disaster strikes. Communities that are resilient are able to minimize any disaster, making the return to normal life as effortless as possible. By implementing a community resilience plan, a community can come together and overcome any disaster, while rebuilding physically and economically. Due to its high complexity the discussion on resilient societies has increasingly been considered from an inter- and transdisciplinary scope. Around 2010 the French-speaking discourse coined the notion of collapsology (collapse science), discussing the resilience of societal systems and possible scenarios for societal transformations in the face of a variety of factors, such as dependence on fossil fuels, overpopulation, loss of biodiversity, and instability of the financial system. The controversial term was created by Pablo Servigne (an agricultural engineer) who, with Raphaël Stevens, wrote the book Comment tout peut s'effondrer (literally, "How everything can collapse"). Another, decidedly transdisciplinary approach which has been coined in late 2010s by German researcher Karim Fathi is the concept of "multiresilience" taking into account the fact that crises in the 21st century are interconnected, multi-dimensional and occurring on multiple system levels. Challenges such as the COVID-19 pandemic (individuals, organisations, societies alike) occur simultaneously, often even in interconnected and clustered forms. From a cross-disciplinary perspective, Karim Fathi outlines five systemic principles contributing to increased collective intelligence, responsiveness and creativity of societies in the face of multiple crises occurring simultaneously. Multiresilience is regarded as complementary to already established concepts for assessing and promoting societal resilience potentials. At the same time it criticises the fact that societal resilience has so far always been discussed from a mono-crisis persperctive. According to Karim Fathi, this onesided perspective" proves to be inadequate in terms of complexity, as societies in the 21st century have to deal with many global challenges - so-called „crisis-bundles“ - in the same time. Multiresilience aims to build up "basic robustness" in the sense of higher collective intelligence, which makes societies more capable of anticipating, reacting and solving problems in different crisis contexts. (en)
Natural resources are resources that are drawn from nature and used with few modifications. This includes the sources of valued characteristics such as commercial and industrial use, aesthetic value, scientific interest and cultural value. On Earth, it includes sunlight, atmosphere, water, land, all minerals along with all vegetation, and wildlife. Natural resources is a part of humanity's natural heritage or protected in nature reserves. Particular areas (such as the rainforest in Fatu-Hiva) often feature biodiversity and geodiversity in their ecosystems. Natural resources may be classified in different ways. Natural resources are materials and components (something that can be used) that can be found within the environment. Every man-made product is composed of natural resources (at its fundamental level). A natural resource may exist as a separate entity such as fresh water, air, as well as any living organism such as a fish, or it may be transformed by extractivist industries into an economically useful form that must be processed to obtain the resource such as metal ores, rare-earth elements, petroleum, timber and most forms of energy. Some resources are renewable resource, which means that they can be used at a certain rate and natural processes will restore them, whereas many extractive industries rely heavily on non-renewable resources that can only be extracted once. Natural-resource allocations can be at the center of many economic and political confrontations both within and between countries. This is particularly true during periods of increasing scarcity and shortages (depletion and overconsumption of resources). Resource extraction is also a major source of human rights violations and environmental damage. The Sustainable Development Goals and other international development agendas frequently focus on creating more sustainable resource extraction, with some scholars and researchers focused on creating economic models, such as circular economy, that rely less on resource extraction, and more on reuse, recycling and renewable resources that can be sustainably managed. (en)
A street is a public thoroughfare in a built environment. It is a public parcel of land adjoining buildings in an urban context, on which people may freely assemble, interact, and move about. A street can be as simple as a level patch of dirt, but is more often paved with a hard, durable surface such as tarmac, concrete, cobblestone or brick. Portions may also be smoothed with asphalt, embedded with rails, or otherwise prepared to accommodate non-pedestrian traffic. Originally, the word street simply meant a paved road (Latin: via strata). The word street is still sometimes used informally as a synonym for road, for example in connection with the ancient Watling Street, but city residents and urban planners draw a crucial modern distinction: a road's main function is transportation, while streets facilitate public interaction. Examples of streets include pedestrian streets, alleys, and city-centre streets too crowded for road vehicles to pass. Conversely, highways and motorways are types of roads, but few would refer to them as streets. (en) +
S
Homelessness or houselessness – also known as a state of being unhoused or unsheltered – is the condition of lacking stable, safe, and adequate housing. People can be categorized as homeless if they are:
* living on the streets, also known as rough sleeping (primary homelessness);
* moving between temporary shelters, including houses of friends, family, and emergency accommodation (secondary homelessness); and
* living in private boarding houses without a private bathroom or security of tenure (tertiary homelessness).
* have no permanent house or place to live safely
* Internally Displaced Persons, persons compelled to leave their places of domicile, who remain as refugees within their country's borders. The rights of people experiencing homelessness also varies from country to country. United States government homeless enumeration studies also include people who sleep in a public or private place, which is not designed for use as a regular sleeping accommodation for human beings. Homelessness and poverty are interrelated. There is no methodological consensus on counting homeless people and identifying their needs; therefore, in most cities, only estimated homeless populations are known. In 2005, an estimated 100 million people worldwide were homeless, and as many as one billion people (one in 6.5 at the time) live as squatters, refugees, or in temporary shelter, all lacking adequate housing. Scarce and expensive housing is the main cause of rising homelessness in the United States. (en) +
La santé est « un état de complet bien-être physique, mental et social, et ne consiste pas seulement en une absence de maladie ou d'infirmité ». Dans cette définition par l'Organisation mondiale de la santé, OMS, depuis 1946, la santé représente « l’un des droits fondamentaux de tout être humain, quelles que soient sa race, sa religion, ses opinions politiques, sa condition économique ou sociale ». Elle implique la satisfaction de tous les besoins fondamentaux de la personne, qu'ils soient affectifs, sanitaires, nutritionnels, sociaux ou culturels.. Mais cette définition confond les notions de santé et de bien-être. Par ailleurs, « la santé résulte d’une interaction constante entre l’individu et son milieu » et représente donc « cette « capacité physique, psychique et sociale des personnes d’agir dans leur milieu et d’accomplir les rôles qu’elles entendent assumer d’une manière acceptable pour elles-mêmes et pour les groupes dont elles font partie ». René Dubos présente en 1973 la santé comme « la situation dans laquelle l'organisme réagit par une adaptation tout en préservant son intégrité individuelle. C'est l'état physique et mental relativement exempt de gênes et de souffrances qui permet à l'individu de fonctionner aussi longtemps que possible dans le milieu où le hasard ou le choix l'ont placé. » Pour René Leriche en 1936, « la santé c'est la vie dans le silence des organes. » (fr) +, Health, according to the World Health Organization, is "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity". A variety of definitions have been used for different purposes over time. Health can be promoted by encouraging healthful activities, such as regular physical exercise and adequate sleep, and by reducing or avoiding unhealthful activities or situations, such as smoking or excessive stress. Some factors affecting health are due to individual choices, such as whether to engage in a high-risk behavior, while others are due to structural causes, such as whether the society is arranged in a way that makes it easier or harder for people to get necessary healthcare services. Still, other factors are beyond both individual and group choices, such as genetic disorders. (en) +, La salud (del latín salus, -utis) es un estado de bienestar o de equilibrio que puede ser visto a nivel subjetivo (un ser humano asume como aceptable el estado general en el que se encuentra) o a nivel objetivo (se constata la ausencia de enfermedades o de factores dañinos en el sujeto en cuestión). El término salud se contrapone al de enfermedad, y es objeto de especial atención por parte de la medicina y de las ciencias de la salud. (es) +
Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals". Analyzing the determinants of health of a population and the threats it faces is the basis for public health. The public can be as small as a handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city; in the case of a pandemic it may encompass several continents. The concept of health takes into account physical, psychological, and social well-being. Public health is an interdisciplinary field. For example, epidemiology, biostatistics, social sciences and management of health services are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include environmental health, community health, behavioral health, health economics, public policy, mental health, health education, health politics, occupational safety, disability, oral health, gender issues in health, and sexual and reproductive health. Public health, together with primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, is part of a country's overall health care system. Public health is implemented through the surveillance of cases and health indicators, and through the promotion of healthy behaviors. Common public health initiatives include promotion of hand-washing and breastfeeding, delivery of vaccinations, promoting ventilation and improved air quality both indoors and outdoors, suicide prevention, smoking cessation, obesity education, increasing healthcare accessibility and distribution of condoms to control the spread of sexually transmitted diseases. There is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed countries and developing countries, as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained healthcare workers, monetary resources, or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even a basic level of medical care and disease prevention. A major public health concern in developing countries is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty coupled with governments' reluctance in implementing public health policies. From the beginnings of human civilization, communities promoted health and fought disease at the population level. In complex, pre-industrialized societies, interventions designed to reduce health risks could be the initiative of different stakeholders, such as army generals, the clergy or rulers. Great Britain became a leader in the development of public health initiatives, beginning in the 19th century, due to the fact that it was the first modern urban nation worldwide. The public health initiatives that began to emerge initially focused on sanitation (for example, the Liverpool and London sewerage systems), control of infectious diseases (including vaccination and quarantine) and an evolving infrastructure of various sciences, e.g. statistics, microbiology, epidemiology, sciences of engineering. (en)
Science is a systematic endeavor that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Science may be as old as the human species, and some of the earliest archeological evidence for scientific reasoning is tens of thousands of years old. The earliest written records in the history of science come from Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in around 3000 to 1200 BCE. Their contributions to mathematics, astronomy, and medicine entered and shaped Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the physical world based on natural causes. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Western Europe during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the Middle Ages, but was preserved in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age and later by the efforts of Byzantine Greek scholars who brought Greek manuscripts from the dying Byzantine Empire to Western Europe in the Renaissance. The recovery and assimilation of Greek works and Islamic inquiries into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived "natural philosophy", which was later transformed by the Scientific Revolution that began in the 16th century as new ideas and discoveries departed from previous Greek conceptions and traditions. The scientific method soon played a greater role in knowledge creation and it was not until the 19th century that many of the institutional and professional features of science began to take shape; along with the changing of "natural philosophy" to "natural science". Modern science is typically divided into three major branches: natural sciences (e.g., biology, chemistry, and physics), which study the physical world; the social sciences (e.g., economics, psychology, and sociology), which study individuals and societies; and the formal sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science), which study formal systems, governed by axioms and rules. There is disagreement whether the formal sciences are science disciplines, because they do not rely on empirical evidence. Applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as in engineering and medicine. New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems. Contemporary scientific research is highly collaborative and is usually done by teams in academic and research institutions, government agencies, and companies. The practical impact of their work has led to the emergence of science policies that seek to influence the scientific enterprise by prioritizing the ethical and moral development of commercial products, armaments, health care, public infrastructure, and environmental protection. (en)
Open science is the movement to make scientific research (including publications, data, physical samples, and software) and its dissemination accessible to all levels of society, amateur or professional. Open science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks. It encompasses practices such as publishing open research, campaigning for open access, encouraging scientists to practice open-notebook science (such as openly sharing data and code), broader dissemination and engagement in science and generally making it easier to publish, access and communicate scientific knowledge. Usage of the term varies substantially across disciplines, with a notable prevalence in the STEM disciplines. Open research is often used quasi-synonymously to address the gap that the denotion of "science" might have regarding an inclusion of the Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences. The primary focus connecting all disciplines is the widespread uptake of new technologies and tools, and the underlying ecology of the production, dissemination and reception of knowledge from a research-based point-of-view. As Tennant et al. (2020) note, the term open science "implicitly seems only to regard ‘scientific’ disciplines, whereas open scholarship can be considered to include research from the Arts and Humanities, as well as the different roles and practices that researchers perform as educators and communicators, and an underlying open philosophy of sharing knowledge beyond research communities." Open science can be seen as a continuation of, rather than a revolution in, practices begun in the 17th century with the advent of the academic journal, when the societal demand for access to scientific knowledge reached a point at which it became necessary for groups of scientists to share resources with each other. In modern times there is debate about the extent to which scientific information should be shared. The conflict that led to the Open Science movement is between the desire of scientists to have access to shared resources versus the desire of individual entities to profit when other entities partake of their resources. Additionally, the status of open access and resources that are available for its promotion are likely to differ from one field of academic inquiry to another. (en)
La sécheresse ou sècheresse \sɛʃ.ʁɛs\ définit l'état d'un environnement confronté à un manque d'eau significativement long et important pour qu'il ait des impacts sur la flore (naturelle ou cultivée), la faune (sauvage ou d'élevage) et les sociétés. Sécheresse ne doit pas être confondu avec aridité. Une région aride peut connaître des épisodes de sécheresse. Le déficit hydrique est une situation naturelle du point de vue de la variabilité climatique (par exemple, les périodes glaciaires/interglaciaires du Quaternaire, les cycles El Niño / La Niña, etc.) mais, selon certains climatologues certaines situations de déficit hydrique sont amplifiées (durée, extension spatiale, intensité) par l'émission humaine de gaz à effet de serre. Il fait suite à un déficit pluviométrique, sur de longues périodes durant lesquelles les précipitations sont anormalement faibles ou insuffisantes pour maintenir l'humidité du sol et l'hygrométrie normale de l'air. Il peut être aggravé ou expliqué par des pompages, une baisse du niveau de la nappe phréatique, l'érosion et la dégradation des sols (l'humus favorise la rétention de l'eau, la coupe à blanc de zones forestières dans la région de l'Amazonie, par exemple, entraîne rapidement la perte de cet humus essentiel à la rétention de l'eau et cause une désertification accélérée d'origine anthropique), une augmentation de l'évapotranspiration induite par des plantations consommatrices d'eau (peupliers, maïs). La sécheresse peut détruire les récoltes (partiellement ou totalement) et tuer les animaux d'élevage, et parfois sauvages. Elle devient alors un facteur de famine régionale et d'exode, souvent accompagnée de troubles sociaux voire de conflits armés en particulier dans les régions de peu de ressources économiques. La sécheresse n'est donc pas qu'un phénomène physique ou climatique objectif. C'est aussi une notion relative qui reflète l'écart entre la disponibilité de l'eau et la demande en eau de l'homme (savoir les applications agricoles – agriculture, du bétail – industrielles, domestiques de l'eau – hygiène, alimentation, lavage – dont certains usages d'une nécessité secondaire – piscine, arrosage des gazons, lavage de voiture – , etc.). Ceci rend toute définition de la sécheresse relative au contexte géopolitique et sociologique ; l'état « normal » de disponibilité de l'eau change selon les zones biogéographiques et les besoins réels ou ressentis des individus et des sociétés. La sécheresse s'initie par une sécheresse météorologique se produisent généralement lorsqu'un anticyclone s'installe durablement au-dessus d'une région à cause d'une situation de blocage. Les hautes pressions persistantes empêchent donc toute intrusion d'une perturbation atmosphérique et peuvent alors mener la région surplombée par celles-ci à une longue période de beau temps et donc avec un peu voire sans précipitations. (fr) , A drought is defined as drier than normal conditions. This means that a drought is "a moisture deficit relative to the average water availability at a given location and season". A drought can last for days, months or years. Drought often exerts substantial impacts on the ecosystems and agriculture of affected regions, and causes harm to the local economy. Annual dry seasons in the tropics significantly increase the chances of a drought developing and subsequent wildfires. Periods of heat can significantly worsen drought conditions by hastening evaporation of water vapour. Drought is a recurring feature of the climate in most parts of the world, becoming more extreme and less predictable due to climate change, which dendrochronological studies date back to 1900. There are three kinds of drought effects, environmental, economic and social. Environmental effects include the drying of wetlands, more and larger wildfires, loss of biodiversity. Economic consequences include disruption of water supplies for municipal economies; lower agricultural, forest, game, and fishing outputs; higher food-production costs; and problems with water supply for the energy sector. Social and health costs include the negative effect on the health of people directly exposed to this phenomenon (excessive heat waves), high food costs, stress caused by failed harvests, water scarcity, etc. Prolonged droughts have caused mass migrations and humanitarian crisis. Many plant species, such as those in the family Cactaceae (or cacti), have drought tolerance adaptations like reduced leaf area and waxy cuticles to enhance their ability to tolerate drought. Some others survive dry periods as buried seeds. Semi-permanent drought produces arid biomes such as deserts and grasslands. Most arid ecosystems have inherently low productivity. The most prolonged drought ever in the world in recorded history continues in the Atacama Desert in Chile (400 years). Throughout history, humans have usually viewed droughts as "disasters" due to the impact on food availability and the rest of society. Humans have often tried to explain droughts as either a natural disaster, caused by humans, or the result of supernatural forces. (en)
Security is protection from, or resilience against, potential harm (or other unwanted coercive change) caused by others, by restraining the freedom of others to act. Beneficiaries (technically referents) of security may be of persons and social groups, objects and institutions, ecosystems or any other entity or phenomenon vulnerable to unwanted change. Security mostly refers to protection from hostile forces, but it has a wide range of other senses: for example, as the absence of harm (e.g. freedom from want); as the presence of an essential good (e.g. food security); as resilience against potential damage or harm (e.g. secure foundations); as secrecy (e.g. a secure telephone line); as containment (e.g. a secure room or cell); and as a state of mind (e.g. emotional security). The term is also used to refer to acts and systems whose purpose may be to provide security (e.g.: security companies, security forces, security guard, cyber security systems, security cameras, remote guarding). Security is not only physical but it can also be virtual. (en) +
Food security speaks to the availability of food in a country (or geography) and the ability of individuals within that country (geography) to access, afford, and source adequate foodstuffs. According to the United Nations' Committee on World Food Security, food security is defined as meaning that all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their food preferences and dietary needs for an active and healthy life. The availability of food irrespective of class, gender or region is another element of food security. There is evidence of food security being a concern many thousands of years ago, with central authorities in ancient China and ancient Egypt being known to release food from storage in times of famine. At the 1974 World Food Conference, the term "food security" was defined with an emphasis on supply; food security is defined as the "availability at all times of adequate, nourishing, diverse, balanced and moderate world food supplies of basic foodstuffs to sustain a steady expansion of food consumption and to offset fluctuations in production and prices". Later definitions added demand and access issues to the definition. The first World Food Summit, held in 1996, stated that food security "exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life." Similarly, household food security is considered to exist when all members, at all times, have access to enough food for an active, healthy life. Individuals who are food secure do not live in hunger or fear of starvation. Food insecurity, on the other hand, is defined by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) as a situation of "limited or uncertain availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods or limited or uncertain ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways". Food security incorporates a measure of resilience to future disruption or unavailability of critical food supply due to various risk factors including droughts, shipping disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability, and wars. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, or FAO, identified the four pillars of food security as availability, access, utilization, and stability. The United Nations (UN) recognized the Right to Food in the Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, and has since said that it is vital for the enjoyment of all other rights. The 1996 World Summit on Food Security declared that "food should not be used as an instrument for political and economic pressure". Multiple different international agreements and mechanisms have been developed to address food security. The main global policy to reduce hunger and poverty is in the Sustainable Development Goals. In particular Goal 2: Zero Hunger sets globally agreed on targets to end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture by 2030. (en)
A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiosperm plants. Seeds are the product of the ripened ovule, after the embryo sac is fertilized by sperm from pollen, forming a zygote. The embryo within a seed develops from the zygote, and grows within the mother plant to a certain size before growth is halted. The seed coat arises from the integuments of the ovule. Seeds have been an important development in the reproduction and success of vegetable gymnosperm and angiosperm plants, relative to more primitive plants such as ferns, mosses and liverworts, which do not have seeds and use water-dependent means to propagate themselves. Seed plants now dominate biological niches on land, from forests to grasslands both in hot and cold climates. The term "seed" also has a general meaning that antedates the above – anything that can be sown, e.g. "seed" potatoes, "seeds" of corn or sunflower "seeds". In the case of sunflower and corn "seeds", what is sown is the seed enclosed in a shell or husk, whereas the potato is a tuber. In the flowering plants, the ovary ripens into a fruit which contains the seed and serves to disseminate it. Many structures commonly referred to as "seeds" are actually dry fruits. Sunflower seeds are sometimes sold commercially while still enclosed within the hard wall of the fruit, which must be split open to reach the seed. Different groups of plants have other modifications, the so-called stone fruits (such as the peach) have a hardened fruit layer (the endocarp) fused to and surrounding the actual seed. Nuts are the one-seeded, hard-shelled fruit of some plants with an indehiscent seed, such as an acorn or hazelnut. (en) +
A public service is any service intended to address specific needs pertaining to the aggregate members of a community. Public services are available to people within a government jurisdiction as provided directly through public sector agencies or via public financing to private businesses or voluntary organizations (or even as provided by family households, though terminology may differ depending on context). Other public services are undertaken on behalf of a government's residents or in the interest of its citizens. The term is associated with a social consensus (usually expressed through democratic elections) that certain services should be available to all, regardless of income, physical ability or mental acuity. Examples of such services include the fire brigade, police, air force, and paramedics (see also public service broadcasting). Even where public services are neither publicly provided nor publicly financed, they are usually subject to regulation going beyond that applying to most economic sectors for social and political reasons. Public policy, when made in the public's interest and with its motivations, is a type of public service. (en) +
Solidarity is an awareness of shared interests, objectives, standards, and sympathies creating a psychological sense of unity of groups or classes. It is based on class collaboration. It refers to the ties in a society that bind people together as one. The term is generally employed in sociology and the other social sciences as well as in philosophy and bioethics. It is also a significant concept in Catholic social teaching; therefore it is a core concept in Christian democratic political ideology. What forms the basis of solidarity and how it is implemented vary between societies. In global south societies it may be mainly based on kinship and shared values while global north societies accumulate various theories as to what contributes to a sense of solidarity, or rather, social cohesion. Unlike collectivism, solidarism does not reject individuals and sees individuals as the basis of society. Solidarity is also one of six principles of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union and December 20 of each year is International Human Solidarity Day recognized as an international observance. Concepts of solidarity are mentioned in the Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights, but not defined clearly. As biotechnology and biomedical enhancement research and production increase, the need for distinct definition of solidarity within healthcare system frameworks is important. However, solidarity is not mentioned in the European Convention on Human Rights nor in the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights and has hence lesser legal meaning when compared to basic rights. (en) +
Sovereignty is the defining authority within individual consciousness, social construct, or territory. Sovereignty entails hierarchy within the state, as well as external autonomy for states. In any state, sovereignty is assigned to the person, body, or institution that has the ultimate authority over other people in order to establish a law or change an existing law. In political theory, sovereignty is a substantive term designating supreme legitimate authority over some polity. In international law, sovereignty is the exercise of power by a state. De jure sovereignty refers to the legal right to do so; de facto sovereignty refers to the factual ability to do so. This can become an issue of special concern upon the failure of the usual expectation that de jure and de facto sovereignty exist at the place and time of concern, and reside within the same organization. (en) +
Food sovereignty is a food system in which the people who produce, distribute, and consume food also control the mechanisms and policies of food production and distribution. This stands in contrast to the present corporate food regime, in which corporations and market institutions control the global food system. Food sovereignty emphasizes local food economies, sustainable food availability, and center culturally appropriate foods and practices. Changing climates and disrupted foodways disproportionately impact indigenous populations and their access to traditional food sources while contributing to higher rates of certain diseases; for this reason, food sovereignty centers indigenous peoples. These needs have been addressed in recent years by several international organizations, including the United Nations, with several countries adopting food sovereignty policies into law. Critics of food sovereignty activism believe that the system is founded on inaccurate baseline assumptions; disregards the origins of the targeted problems; and is plagued by a lack of consensus for proposed solutions. (en) +, La souveraineté alimentaire est un concept développé et présenté pour la première fois par Via Campesina lors du Sommet de l'alimentation organisé par la FAO à Rome en 1996. Il a depuis été repris et précisé par divers courants altermondialistes lors de différents Forums Sociaux Mondiaux. La souveraineté alimentaire est présentée comme un droit international qui laisse la possibilité aux populations, aux États ou aux groupes d'États de mettre en place les politiques agricoles les mieux adaptées à leurs populations sans qu'elles puissent avoir un effet négatif sur les populations d'autres pays. Elle se construit à l'origine dans l'objectif de permettre le respect des droits des paysans. La souveraineté alimentaire est donc une rupture par rapport à l'organisation actuelle des marchés agricoles mise en œuvre par l'OMC. Complémentaire du concept de sécurité alimentaire qui concerne la quantité d'aliments disponibles, l'accès des populations à ceux-ci, l'utilisation biologique des aliments et le problème de la prévention et gestion des crises, la souveraineté alimentaire accorde en plus une importance aux conditions sociales et environnementales de production des aliments. Elle prône un accès plus équitable à la terre pour les paysans pauvres, au moyen si nécessaire d'une réforme agraire et de mécanismes de sécurisation des droits d'usage du foncier. Au niveau local, les défenseurs de la souveraineté alimentaire favorisent le maintien d'une agriculture de proximité destinée en priorité à alimenter les marchés régionaux et nationaux. Les cultures vivrières et l'agriculture familiale de petite échelle sont présentées par les défenseurs de la souveraineté alimentaire comme étant d'une grande efficacité économique[réf. nécessaire], sociale[réf. nécessaire] et environnementale[réf. nécessaire], comparée à l'agriculture industrielle et les plantations de grande échelle où travaillent de nombreux salariés. La place et le rôle des femmes sont privilégiés. La souveraineté alimentaire privilégie des techniques agricoles qui favorisent l'autonomie des paysans. Elle est donc favorable à l'agriculture biologique et à l'agriculture paysanne. Elle refuse l'utilisation des plantes transgéniques en agriculture. (fr)
Sport pertains to any form of competitive physical activity or game that aims to use, maintain, or improve physical ability and skills while providing enjoyment to participants and, in some cases, entertainment to spectators. Sports can, through casual or organized participation, improve participants' physical health. Hundreds of sports exist, from those between single contestants, through to those with hundreds of simultaneous participants, either in teams or competing as individuals. In certain sports such as racing, many contestants may compete, simultaneously or consecutively, with one winner; in others, the contest (a match) is between two sides, each attempting to exceed the other. Some sports allow a "tie" or "draw", in which there is no single winner; others provide tie-breaking methods to ensure one winner and one loser. A number of contests may be arranged in a tournament producing a champion. Many sports leagues make an annual champion by arranging games in a regular sports season, followed in some cases by playoffs. Sport is generally recognised as system of activities based in physical athleticism or physical dexterity, with major competitions such as the Olympic Games admitting only sports meeting this definition. Other organisations, such as the Council of Europe, preclude activities without a physical element from classification as sports. However, a number of competitive, but non-physical, activities claim recognition as mind sports. The International Olympic Committee (through ARISF) recognises both chess and bridge as bona fide sports, and SportAccord, the international sports federation association, recognises five non-physical sports: bridge, chess, draughts (checkers), Go and xiangqi, and limits the number of mind games which can be admitted as sports. Sport is usually governed by a set of rules or customs, which serve to ensure fair competition, and allow consistent adjudication of the winner. Winning can be determined by physical events such as scoring goals or crossing a line first. It can also be determined by judges who are scoring elements of the sporting performance, including objective or subjective measures such as technical performance or artistic impression. Records of performance are often kept, and for popular sports, this information may be widely announced or reported in sport news. Sport is also a major source of entertainment for non-participants, with spectator sport drawing large crowds to sport venues, and reaching wider audiences through broadcasting. Sport betting is in some cases severely regulated, and in some cases is central to the sport. According to A.T. Kearney, a consultancy, the global sporting industry is worth up to $620 billion as of 2013. The world's most accessible and practised sport is running, while association football is the most popular spectator sport. (en)
Le squat (de l'anglais to squat, occuper un lieu sans en avoir la permission), désigne l'occupation d'un lieu dans une perspective d'habitation sans l'accord du titulaire légal de ce lieu. Juridiquement qualifié d'« occupation sans droit ni titre », le squat est par définition illégal. Par extension, le squat désigne le lieu ainsi occupé. (fr) +, Squatting is the action of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential, that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use. The United Nations estimated in 2003 that there were one billion slum residents and squatters globally. Squatting occurs worldwide and tends to occur when people who are poor and homeless find empty buildings or land to occupy for housing. It has a long history, broken down by country below. In developing countries and least developed countries, shanty towns often begin as squatted settlements. In African cities such as Lagos much of the population lives in slums. There are pavement dwellers in India and in Hong Kong as well as rooftop slums. Informal settlements in Latin America are known by names such as villa miseria (Argentina), pueblos jóvenes (Peru) and asentamientos irregulares (Guatemala, Uruguay). In Brazil, there are favelas in the major cities and land-based movements. In industrialized countries, there are often residential squats and also political squatting movements, which can be anarchist, autonomist or socialist in nature, for example in the self-managed social centres of Italy or squats in the United States. Oppositional movements from the 1960s and 1970s created freespaces in Denmark or squatting village in the Netherlands, and in England and Wales, there were estimated to be 50,000 squatters in the late 1970s. Each local situation determines the context: in Athens, Greece, there are refugee squats; Germany has social centres; in Spain there are many squats. (en) +, El movimiento okupa es un movimiento social radical que propugna la ocupación de viviendas o locales deshabitados, temporal o permanentemente, con el fin de utilizarlos como vivienda, guarida, tierras de cultivo, lugar de reunión o centros con fines sociales, políticos y culturales, entre otros. El principal motivo es denunciar y al mismo tiempo responder a las dificultades económicas que los activistas consideran que existen para hacer efectivo, a costa del derecho a la propiedad privada, el derecho a la vivienda. El movimiento okupa agrupa gran variedad de ideologías —en ocasiones asociadas a una determinada tribu urbana— que suelen justificar sus acciones como un gesto de protesta política y social contra la especulación y para defender el derecho a la vivienda frente a las dificultades económicas o sociales. El movimiento okupa también suele defender el aprovechamiento de solares, inmuebles y espacios abandonados y su uso público como centros sociales o culturales. La legislación relativa a okupación de espacios varía mucho de un país a otro. En la mayoría de países, los propietarios legales del bien inmueble cuyos bienes resultan usurpados pueden denunciarla como un delito ordinario; mientras que existen países donde puede haber una legislación que tolere condicionadamente la okupación, o donde existen concesiones temporales por parte de los propietarios a cambio del mantenimiento o alquiler del inmueble. En Holanda, por ejemplo, sólo recientemente se ha propuesto castigar esta práctica. (es) +
Surveillance is the monitoring of behavior, many activities, or information for the purpose of information gathering, influencing, managing or directing. This can include observation from a distance by means of electronic equipment, such as closed-circuit television (CCTV), or interception of electronically transmitted information like Internet traffic. It can also include simple technical methods, such as human intelligence gathering and postal interception. Surveillance is used by citizens for protecting their neighborhoods. And by governments for intelligence gathering - including espionage, prevention of crime, the protection of a process, person, group or object, or the investigation of crime. It is also used by criminal organizations to plan and commit crimes, and by businesses to gather intelligence on criminals, their competitors, suppliers or customers. Religious organisations charged with detecting heresy and heterodoxy may also carry out surveillance.Auditors carry out a form of surveillance. A byproduct of surveillance is that it can unjustifiably violate people's privacy and is often criticized by civil liberties activists. Liberal democracies may have laws that seek to restrict governmental and private use of surveillance, whereas authoritarian governments seldom have any domestic restrictions. Espionage is by definition covert and typically illegal according to the rules of the observed party, whereas most types of surveillance are overt and are considered legitimate. International espionage seems to be common among all types of countries. (en) +
Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS), as defined by IFOAM, are "locally focused quality assurance systems. They certify producers based on active participation of stakeholders and are built on a foundation of trust, social networks and knowledge exchange." They represent an alternative to third party certification, especially adapted to local markets and short supply chains. They can also complement third party certification with a private label that brings additional guarantees and transparency. PGS enable the direct participation of producers, consumers and other stakeholders in:
* the choice and definition of the standards
* the development and implementation of certification procedures
* the certification decisions Participatory Guarantee Systems are also referred to as "participatory certification". The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) and the organic movement remain a leader in the concept of PGS at the international level. IFOAM is running a program to recognize PGS in the organic sector. PGS is a tool that can be adopted not only for organic agriculture but is useful in various sectors. (en) +
T
Technology is the application of knowledge to reach practical goals in a specifiable and reproducible way. The word technology may also mean the product of such an endeavor. The use of technology is widely prevalent in medicine, science, industry, communication, transportation, and daily life. Technologies include physical objects like utensils or machines and intangible tools such as software. Many technological advancements have led to societal changes. The earliest known technology is the stone tool, used in the prehistoric era, followed by fire use, which contributed to the growth of the human brain and the development of language in the Ice Age. The invention of the wheel in the Bronze Age enabled wider travel and the creation of more complex machines. Recent technological developments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet have lowered communication barriers and ushered in the knowledge economy. While technology contributes to economic development and human prosperity, it can also have negative impacts like pollution or resource depletion, or cause social harms like technological unemployment caused by automation. As a result, philosophical and political debates have arisen over the role and use of technology, the ethics of technology, and the mitigation of technology's potential downsides. Historical and contemporary movements like neo-Luddism and anarcho-primitivism criticize technology's pervasiveness, while adherents to transhumanism and techno-progressivism actively support technological change, viewing it as emancipatory. Many negative impacts of technology can be mitigated through technological innovations like renewable energy in transportation and industry, genetically modified crops to address soil depletion, and space exploration to mitigate global catastrophic risks. (en) +
Le technosolutionnisme fait référence à la tentative d'utiliser l'ingénierie ou la technologie pour résoudre un problème souvent créé par des technologies antérieures. Certains le définissent comme une « tentative de réparer les dommages causés à une technologie par une modification du système », qui peut impliquer une modification de technologies existantes et/ou une modification de ses procédures d'exploitation ou de maintenance. Les correctifs technologiques sont inévitables dans la technologie moderne. Il a été observé que de nombreuses technologies, bien qu'inventées et développées pour résoudre certains problèmes perçus, créent souvent d'autres problèmes dans le processus, appelés externalités . Le technosolutionnisme est l'idée que tous les problèmes peuvent trouver des solutions dans des technologies meilleures et nouvelles. Le terme est maintenant utilisé comme une expression condescendante pour décrire des solutions bon marché et rapides en utilisant des technologies inappropriées ; ces correctifs créent souvent plus de problèmes qu'ils n'en résolvent, ou donnent le sentiment qu'ils ont résolu le problème. (fr) +, A technological fix, technical fix, technological shortcut or (techno-)solutionism refers to attempts to use engineering or technology to solve a problem (often created by earlier technological interventions). Some references define technological fix as an "attempt to repair the harm of a technology by modification of the system", that might involve modification of the machine and/or modification of the procedures for operating and maintaining it. Technological fixes are inevitable in modern technology. It has been observed that many technologies, although invented and developed to solve certain perceived problems, often create other problems in the process, known as externalities. In other words, there would be modification of the basic hardware, modification of techniques and procedures, or both. The technological fix is the idea that all problems can find solutions in better and new technologies. It now is used as a dismissive phrase to describe cheap, quick fixes by using inappropriate technologies; these fixes often create more problems than they solve, or give people a sense that they have solved the problem. (en) +
Tourism is travel for pleasure or business; also the theory and practice of touring, the business of attracting, accommodating, and entertaining tourists, and the business of operating tours. The World Tourism Organization defines tourism more generally, in terms which go "beyond the common perception of tourism as being limited to holiday activity only", as people "travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure and not less than 24 hours, business and other purposes". Tourism can be domestic (within the traveller's own country) or international, and international tourism has both incoming and outgoing implications on a country's balance of payments. Tourism numbers declined as a result of a strong economic slowdown (the late-2000s recession) between the second half of 2008 and the end of 2009, and in consequence of the outbreak of the 2009 H1N1 influenza virus, but slowly recovered until the COVID-19 pandemic put an abrupt end to the growth. The United Nations World Tourism Organization estimated that global international tourist arrivals might decrease by 58% to 78% in 2020, leading to a potential loss of US$0.9–1.2 trillion in international tourism receipts. Globally, international tourism receipts (the travel item in balance of payments) grew to US$1.03 trillion (€740 billion) in 2005, corresponding to an increase in real terms of 3.8% from 2010. International tourist arrivals surpassed the milestone of 1 billion tourists globally for the first time in 2012, emerging source markets such as China, Russia, and Brazil had significantly increased their spending over the previous decade. Global tourism accounts for c. 8% of global greenhouse-gas emissions. Emissions as well as other significant environmental and social impacts are not always beneficial to local communities and their economies. For this reason, many tourist development organizations have begun to focus on sustainable tourism to mitigate the negative effects caused by the growing impact of tourism. The United Nations World Tourism Organization emphasized these practices by promoting tourism as part of the Sustainable Development Goals, through programs like the International Year for Sustainable Tourism for Development in 2017, and programs like focusing on how SDG 8, SDG 12 and SDG 14 implicate tourism in creating a sustainable economy. Tourism has reached new dimensions with the emerging industry of space tourism as well as the current industry with cruise ships, there are many different ways of tourism. Another potential new tourism industry is virtual tourism. (en)
In economics and in an ecological context, the tragedy of the commons is a situation in which individual users, who have open access to a resource unhampered by shared social structures or formal rules that govern access and use, act independently according to their own self-interest and, contrary to the common good of all users, cause depletion of the resource through their uncoordinated action in case there are too many users related to the available resources. Central element of the concept originated in an essay written in 1833 by the British economist William Forster Lloyd, who used a hypothetical example of the effects of unregulated grazing on common land, also known as "the commons" (in Anglo-Saxon law) in Great Britain and Ireland. In embryonic form the idea can also be found at Aristotle: "That which is common to the greatest number gets the least amount of care. Men pay most attention to what is their own: they care less for what is common." The theory became widely known as the "tragedy of the commons" after an essay with this title was published in Science written by Garrett Hardin in 1968. It became one of the most cited academic papers ever published and also one of the most heavily criticized, particularly by anthropologists and historians. Hardin, who wrote a total of 350 articles and 27 books, describes in this early essay that common use will only work reasonably satisfactorily as long as the number of man and beast stay well below the carrying capacity of the land. The availability of resources and the amount of people depending on it should therefor be kept in balance. As a punch-line in the article he writes that a freedom to breed is intolerable. As a result of discussions carried out in the decade after publication, Hardin in a talk in the early 80s suggested a better wording of the central idea: "Under conditions of overpopulation, freedom in an unmanaged commons brings ruin to all." In 1991, faced with evidence of historical and existing commons, Hardin retracted his original thesis and wrote "The Tragedy of the 'Unmanaged' Commons". Critical scholars note that although taken as a hypothetical example by Lloyd, the historical demise of the commons of Britain and Europe resulted not from misuse of long-held rights of usage by the commoners, but from the commons' owners enclosing and appropriating the land, abrogating the commoners' rights. Although open-access resource systems may collapse due to overuse (such as in overfishing), many examples have existed and still do exist where members of a community with regulated access to a common resource co-operate to exploit those resources prudently without collapse, or even creating "perfect order". Elinor Ostrom was awarded the 2009 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for demonstrating this concept in her book , which included examples of how local communities were able to do this without top-down regulations or privatization. On the other hand, Dieter Helm argues that these examples are context-specific and the tragedy of the commons "is not generally solved this way. If it were, the destruction of nature would not have occurred." In a modern global economic context, "commons" is taken to mean any open-access and unregulated resource such as the atmosphere, oceans, rivers, ocean fish stocks, or even an office refrigerator. In an anglo-saxon legal context the concept of the commons derive from a centuries old principle that not all land can be in private hands, but certain types of goods should only belong to the society. Here commons is a type of property that is neither private nor public, but rather held jointly by the members of a community in the interest of the community, who govern access and use through social structures, traditions, or formal rules. In environmental science, the "tragedy of the commons" is often cited in connection with sustainable development, meshing economic growth and environmental protection, as well as in the debate over global warming. It has also been used in analyzing behavior in the fields of economics, evolutionary psychology, anthropology, game theory, politics, taxation, and sociology. (en)
L'économie du travail est une branche de l'économie appliquée à l'analyse du marché du travail. (fr) +, Labour economics, or labor economics, seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for wage labour. Labour is a commodity that is supplied by labourers, usually in exchange for a wage paid by demanding firms. Because these labourers exist as parts of a social, institutional, or political system, labour economics must also account for social, cultural and political variables. Labour markets or job markets function through the interaction of workers and employers. Labour economics looks at the suppliers of labour services (workers) and the demanders of labour services (employers), and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income. These patterns exist because each individual in the market is presumed to make rational choices based on the information that they know regarding wage, desire to provide labour, and desire for leisure. Labour markets are normally geographically bounded, but the rise of the internet has brought about a 'planetary labour market' in some sectors. Labour is a measure of the work done by human beings. It is conventionally contrasted with other factors of production, such as land and capital. Some theories focus on human capital, or entrepreneurship, (which refers to the skills that workers possess and not necessarily the actual work that they produce). Labour is unique to study because it is a special type of good that cannot be separated from the owner (i.e. the work cannot be separated from the person who does it). A labour market is also different from other markets in that workers are the suppliers and firms are the demanders. (en) +
A sidewalk (North American English), pavement (British English), footpath in Australia, India, New Zealand and Ireland, or footway, is a path along the side of a street, highway, terminals. Usually constructed of concrete, pavers, brick, stone, or asphalt, it is designed for pedestrians. A sidewalk is normally higher than the roadway, and separated from it by a kerb (spelled "curb" in North America). There may also be a planted strip between the sidewalk and the roadway and between the roadway and the adjacent land. In some places, the same term may also be used for a paved path, trail or footpath that is not next to a road, for example, a path through a park. (en) +
U
The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of 27 member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of 4,233,255.3 km2 (1,634,469.0 sq mi) and an estimated total population of about 447 million. The EU has often been described as a sui generis political entity (without precedent or comparison) combining the characteristics of both a federation and a confederation. Containing 5.8 per cent of the world population in 2020, the EU generated a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of around US$17.1 trillion in 2021, constituting approximately 18 per cent of global nominal GDP. Additionally, all EU states have a very high Human Development Index according to the United Nations Development Programme. Its cornerstone, the Customs Union, paved the way to establishing an internal single market based on standardised legal framework and legislation that applies in all member states in those matters, and only those matters, where the states have agreed to act as one. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market; enact legislation in justice and home affairs; and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development. Passport controls have been abolished for travel within the Schengen Area. The eurozone is a group composed of the 19 EU member states that have fully implemented the economic and monetary union and use the euro currency. Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the union has developed a role in external relations and defence. It maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7 and the G20. Due to its global influence, the European Union has been described by some scholars as an emerging superpower. The union was established along with its citizenship when the Maastricht Treaty came into force in 1993, and was subsequently incorporated as an international law juridical person upon entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009, but its beginnings may be traced to its earliest predecessors incorporated primarily by a group of founding states known as the Inner Six (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany) at the start of modern institutionalised European integration in 1948 and onwards, namely to the Western Union (WU, 1954 renamed Western European Union, WEU), the International Authority for the Ruhr (IAR), the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the European Economic Community (EEC, 1993 renamed European Community, EC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom), established, respectively, by the 1948 Treaty of Brussels, the 1948 London Six-Power Conference, the 1951 Treaty of Paris, the 1957 Treaty of Rome and the 1957 Euratom Treaty. These increasingly amalgamated bodies later known collectively as the European Communities have grown since, along with their legal successor, the EU, both in size through accessions of further 21 states as well as in power through acquisitions of various policy areas to their remit by the virtue of the abovementioned treaties, as well as numerous other ones, such as the Modified Brussels Treaty, the Merger Treaty, the Single European Act, the Treaty of Amsterdam and the Treaty of Nice. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Although the United Kingdom became the only member state to leave the EU in 2020, several other countries are aspiring or negotiating to join it. (en)
Une université est une institution d'enseignement supérieur, d'étude et de recherche, constituée par la réunion de divers établissements nommés suivant les traditions « collèges », « facultés », « instituts », « départements », « centres », « sections », « unités » ou écoles spécifiques, mais aussi bibliothèque ou atelier, médiathèque ou musée, etc. formant un ensemble administratif cohérent avec un statut de droit défini, public, privé ou éventuellement mixte. Sous cette égide légale et administrative sont ainsi rassemblées ou monopolisées la production (recherche scientifique), la conservation (publications et bibliothèques) et la transmission (études supérieures) de différents champs choisis d'études et de connaissance. Le mot universitas attesté entre 1214 et 1218 en latin médiéval, dans la pratique de juristes, désigne une communauté, une assemblée ou une corporation, ici, de maîtres et/ou d'élèves universitas magistrorum et scolarium, il est emprunté au vocabulaire des organisations marchandes, en particulier des guildes de commerce et corporations régulant des activités de services marchands. Ces corporations universitaires spécifiques ne caractérisent les premières et rares concentrations d'écoles d'enseignement supérieur de l'Europe méridionale et occidentale qu'à partir de la fin du premier tiers du XIIIe siècle. Il s'agit d'un statut qui permet de faire face aux autorités de l'école ecclésiastique, aux bourgeois de la ville réunis en assemblées ou en communes, voire au besoin à l'autoritarisme régalien ou papal. L'entrée à l'université est généralement restreinte à ceux qui ont préalablement un diplôme d'enseignement secondaire. Le nombre d'étudiants dans les universités du monde est monté en flèche pendant tout le XXe siècle, spécialement depuis la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Aujourd'hui un bon fonctionnement des universités et plus généralement de l'enseignement supérieur est considéré comme un atout économique. Aussi, les grands pays européens, pour soutenir la compétition internationale, se sont lancés depuis une dizaine d'années dans un mouvement de réflexion et de réforme de leurs universités. (fr) , A university (from Latin universitas 'a whole') is an institution of higher (or tertiary) education and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines. Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs. In the United States, the designation is reserved for colleges that have a graduate school. The word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means "community of teachers and scholars". The first universities were created in Europe by Catholic Church monks. The University of Bologna (Università di Bologna), founded in 1088, is the first university in the sense of:
* Being a high degree-awarding institute.
* Having independence from the ecclesiastic schools, although conducted by both clergy and non-clergy.
* Using the word universitas (which was coined at its foundation).
* Issuing secular and non-secular degrees: grammar, rhetoric, logic, theology, canon law, notarial law. (en) +
Urban resilience has conventionally been defined as the "measurable ability of any urban system, with its inhabitants, to maintain continuity through all shocks and stresses, while positively adapting and transforming towards sustainability". Therefore, a resilient city is one that assesses, plans and acts to prepare for and respond to hazards - natural and human-made, sudden and slow-onset, expected and unexpected. Resilient Cities are better positioned to protect and enhance people's lives, secure development gains, foster an investible environment, and drive positive change. Academic discussion of urban resilience has focused primarily on three distinct threats; climate change, natural disasters, and terrorism. Resilience to these threats has been discussed in the context of non-physical, as well as, physical aspects of urban planning and design. Accordingly, resilience strategies have tended to be conceived of in terms of counter-terrorism, other disasters (earthquakes, wildfires, tsunamis, coastal flooding, solar flares, etc.), and infrastructure adoption of sustainable energy. More recently, there has been an increasing attention to genealogies of urban resilience and the capability of urban systems to adapt to changing conditions. This branch of resilience theory builds on a notion of cities as highly complex adaptive systems. The implication of this insight is to move urban planning away from conventional approaches based in geometric plans to an approach informed by network science that involves less interference in the functioning of cities. Network science provides a way of linking city size to the forms of networks that are likely to enable cities to function in different ways. It can further provide insights into the potential effectiveness of various urban policies. This requires a better understanding of the types of practices and tools that contribute to building urban resilience. Genealogical approaches explore the evolution of these practices over time, including the values and power relations underpinning them. Building resilience in cities relies on investment decisions that prioritize spending on activities that offer alternatives, which perform well in different scenarios. Such decisions need to take into account future risks and uncertainties. Because risk can never be fully eliminated, emergency and disaster planning is crucial. Disaster risk management frameworks, for example, offer practical opportunities for enhancing resilience. More than half of the world's human population has lived in cities since 2007, and urbanization is calculated to rise to 80% by 2050. This means that the major resilience challenges of our era, such as poverty reduction, natural hazards and climate change, environmental sustainability, and social inclusion, will be won or lost in cities. Mass density of people makes them especially vulnerable both to the impacts of acute disasters and the slow, creeping effects of the changing climate; all making resilience planning critically important. At the same time, growing urbanization over the past century has been associated with a considerable increase in urban sprawl. Resilience efforts address how individuals, communities and business not only cope on the face of multiple shocks and stresses, but also exploit opportunities for transformational development. As one way of addressing disaster risk in urban areas, national and local governments, often supported by international funding agencies, engage in resettlement. This can be preventative, or occur after a disaster. While this reduces people's exposure to hazards, it can also lead to other problems, which can leave people more vulnerable or worse off than they were before. Resettlement needs to be understood as part of long-term sustainable development, not just as a means for disaster risk reduction. (en)
L'urbanisme désigne l'ensemble des sciences, des techniques et des arts relatifs à l'organisation et à l'aménagement des espaces urbains. Ce projet peut être sous-tendu par une volonté d'assurer le bien-être de l'homme et d'améliorer les rapports sociaux en préservant l'environnement. Les professionnels qui exercent ce métier sont des urbanistes. Selon les traditions académiques, cette discipline est associée tantôt à l'architecture, tantôt à la géographie, selon l'aspect mis en avant, l'intervention urbaine ou l'étude théorique. En France, l'enseignement et la recherche universitaire dans ce champ relèvent d'une section spécifique du Conseil national des universités (24, Aménagement de l'espace, Urbanisme). L'urbaniste Pierre Merlin écrit : « Les géographes ont souvent eu tendance à considérer, en France notamment, l'aménagement (et en particulier l'aménagement urbain, voire l'urbanisme) comme un prolongement naturel de leur discipline. Il s'agit en fait de champs d'action pluridisciplinaires par nature qui ne sauraient être l'apanage d'une seule discipline quelle qu'elle soit. Mais la géographie, discipline de l'espace à différentes échelles, est concernée au premier chef. » L'urbanisme intègre le domaine de la planification spatiale et met en pratique les méthodes de la planification au service de l'aménagement du territoire et de l'urbanisme. On distingue différentes échelles de la planification spatiale :
* le territoire national : l'aménagement du territoire ;
* la région, le massif ou une bande littorale : la planification régionale ;
* le quartier, la ville, jusqu'à l'agglomération : l'urbanisme ;
* l'îlot ou un groupe de bâtiments dont la composition n'atteint pas la superficie du quartier : la composition urbaine ;
* le bâtiment : l'architecture. (fr) +, Urbanism is the study of how inhabitants of urban areas, such as towns and cities, interact with the built environment. It is a direct component of disciplines such as urban planning, which is the profession focusing on the physical design and management of urban structures and urban sociology which is the academic field the study of urban life and culture. Many architects, planners, geographers, and sociologists investigate the way people live in densely populated urban areas. There is a wide variety of different theories and approaches to the study of urbanism. However, in some contexts internationally, urbanism is synonymous with urban planning, and urbanist refers to an urban planner. The term urbanism originated in the late nineteenth century with the Spanish engineer-architect Ildefons Cerda, whose intent was to create an autonomous activity focused on the spatial organization of the city. Urbanism's emergence in the early 20th century was associated with the rise of centralized manufacturing, mixed-use neighborhoods, social organizations and networks, and what has been described as "the convergence between political, social and economic citizenship". Urbanism can be understood as placemaking and the creation of place identity at a citywide level, however as early as 1938 Louis Wirth wrote that it is necessary to stop 'identify[ing] urbanism with the physical entity of the city', go 'beyond an arbitrary boundary line' and consider how 'technological developments in transportation and communication have enormously extended the urban mode of living beyond the confines of the city itself.' (en) +
Le cantonnement forestier est un droit seigneurial concernant les forêts de France, pendant le Moyen Âge et l'Ancien Régime. Dans une forêt sur laquelle pèsent des droits d'usage (affouage, glandée …) au profit des , le propriétaire (généralement le seigneur) peut s'en réserver une partie en toute propriété. Alors que le triage "est une opération qui consiste à distraire le tiers des biens communaux d'une paroisse au profit du seigneur, de la concession gratuite duquel ils proviennent", le cantonnement est une opération qui "consiste à réserver, à circonscrire le droit indéfini et illimité des habitants usagers sur une partie déterminée des fonds soumis à leur droit d'usage, afin de laisser le reste libre au seigneur propriétaire". Ce qui va déterminer le choix de la procédure à suivre est donc la relation entretenue par les ayant-droit sur un espace déterminé. Sont-ils propriétaires de cet espace ou simple usager, à titre gracieux, ou à cens d'un bois, d'une lande ou d'un marais. C’est surtout à partir du XVIIe siècle que les procédures se multiplient, les propriétaires forestiers voulant exclure les usagers de leurs bois afin d’être libre de la conduite forestière, voire de leur exploitation. Lorsqu’il s’agit d’alimenter un haut-fourneau, la procédure du cantonnement permet de mettre en place un taillis à rotation courte (autour de 10 ans) orienté vers la production de charbon. Dans l’est de la France, en zone de production métallurgique, les cantonnements seront à l’origine des forêts communales du XIXe siècle. (fr) +
L'usus (du latin signifiant « usage ») est le droit d'user d'une chose, sans que l'on en perçoive les fruits. Il se distingue :
* du fructus qui est le droit de disposer des fruits d'une chose,
* de l'abusus qui est le droit de disposer d'une chose, et notamment de l'aliéner. Ces trois droits sont les membres du droit de propriété. L'association de l'usus et du fructus compose le droit d'utiliser une chose et de jouir de ses fruits (« usufruit »). L'usus est un droit réel en ce sens qu'il s'exerce sur une chose, par opposition aux droits personnels qui s'exercent à l'encontre d'une personne (créance). (fr) +,
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Une ville — le milieu urbain — est à la fois un milieu physique et humain où se concentre une population qui organise son espace en fonction du site et de son environnement, en fonction de ses besoins et de ses activités propres et aussi de contingences notamment socio-politiques. La ville est un milieu complexe qui ne peut cependant pas se résumer à une approche physique, car l'espace urbain est aussi la traduction spatiale de l'organisation dans l'espace et dans le temps des hommes et de leurs activités dans un contexte donné. Ce contexte est autant physique, économique, politique, social ou culturel. L'approche de la ville ne peut être que diachronique et l'histoire des villes, de chaque ville ou agglomération reste un élément d'analyse essentiel. La ville peut être comparée avec un écosystème qui interagit en permanence comme un milieu avec ses hôtes. Les principes qui régissent la structure et l'organisation de la ville sont étudiés par la sociologie urbaine, l'urbanisme ou encore l'économie urbaine. (fr) +, A city is a large human settlement. It can be defined as a permanent and densely settled place with administratively defined boundaries whose members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks. Cities generally have extensive systems for housing, transportation, sanitation, utilities, land use, production of goods, and communication. Their density facilitates interaction between people, government organisations and businesses, sometimes benefiting different parties in the process, such as improving efficiency of goods and service distribution. Historically, city-dwellers have been a small proportion of humanity overall, but following two centuries of unprecedented and rapid urbanization, more than half of the world population now lives in cities, which has had profound consequences for global sustainability. Present-day cities usually form the core of larger metropolitan areas and urban areas—creating numerous commuters traveling towards city centres for employment, entertainment, and education. However, in a world of intensifying globalization, all cities are to varying degrees also connected globally beyond these regions. This increased influence means that cities also have significant influences on global issues, such as sustainable development, global warming, and global health. Because of these major influences on global issues, the international community has prioritized investment in sustainable cities through Sustainable Development Goal 11. Due to the efficiency of transportation and the smaller land consumption, dense cities hold the potential to have a smaller ecological footprint per inhabitant than more sparsely populated areas. Therefore, compact cities are often referred to as a crucial element of fighting climate change. However, this concentration can also have significant negative consequences, such as forming urban heat islands, concentrating pollution, and stressing water supplies and other resources. Other important traits of cities besides population include the capital status and relative continued occupation of the city. For example, country capitals such as Beijing, London, Mexico City, Moscow, Nairobi, New Delhi, Paris, Rome, Athens, Seoul, Singapore, Tokyo, Manila, and Washington, D.C. reflect the identity and apex of their respective nations. Some historic capitals, such as Kyoto and Xi'an, maintain their reflection of cultural identity even without modern capital status. Religious holy sites offer another example of capital status within a religion, Jerusalem, Mecca, Varanasi, Ayodhya, Haridwar and Prayagraj each hold significance. (en)
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The Semantic Web, sometimes known as Web 3.0 (not to be confused with Web3), is an extension of the World Wide Web through standards set by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). The goal of the Semantic Web is to make Internet data machine-readable. To enable the encoding of semantics with the data, technologies such as Resource Description Framework (RDF) and Web Ontology Language (OWL) are used. These technologies are used to formally represent metadata. For example, ontology can describe concepts, relationships between entities, and categories of things. These embedded semantics offer significant advantages such as reasoning over data and operating with heterogeneous data sources. These standards promote common data formats and exchange protocols on the Web, fundamentally the RDF. According to the W3C, "The Semantic Web provides a common framework that allows data to be shared and reused across application, enterprise, and community boundaries." The Semantic Web is therefore regarded as an integrator across different content and information applications and systems. The term was coined by Tim Berners-Lee for a web of data (or data web) that can be processed by machines—that is, one in which much of the meaning is machine-readable. While its critics have questioned its feasibility, proponents argue that applications in library and information science, industry, biology and human sciences research have already proven the validity of the original concept. Berners-Lee originally expressed his vision of the Semantic Web in 1999 as follows: I have a dream for the Web [in which computers] become capable of analyzing all the data on the Web – the content, links, and transactions between people and computers. A "Semantic Web", which makes this possible, has yet to emerge, but when it does, the day-to-day mechanisms of trade, bureaucracy and our daily lives will be handled by machines talking to machines. The "intelligent agents" people have touted for ages will finally materialize. The 2001 Scientific American article by Berners-Lee, Hendler, and Lassila described an expected evolution of the existing Web to a Semantic Web. In 2006, Berners-Lee and colleagues stated that: "This simple idea…remains largely unrealized".In 2013, more than four million Web domains (out of roughly 250 million total) contained Semantic Web markup. (en)
La Terre est la troisième planète par ordre d'éloignement au Soleil et la cinquième plus grande du Système solaire aussi bien par la masse que le diamètre. Par ailleurs, elle est le seul objet céleste connu pour abriter la vie. Elle orbite autour du Soleil en 365,256 jours solaires — une année sidérale — et réalise une rotation sur elle-même relativement au Soleil en 23 h 56 min 4 s — un jour sidéral — soit un peu moins que son jour solaire de 24 h du fait de ce déplacement autour du Soleil. L'axe de rotation de la Terre possède une inclinaison de 23°, ce qui cause l'apparition des saisons. D'après la datation radiométrique, la Terre s'est formée il y a 4,54 milliards d'années. Elle possède un unique satellite naturel, la Lune, qui s'est formée peu après. L'interaction gravitationnelle avec son satellite crée les marées, stabilise son axe de rotation et réduit graduellement sa vitesse de rotation. La vie serait apparue dans les océans il y a au moins 3,5 milliards d'années, ce qui a affecté l'atmosphère et la surface terrestre par la prolifération d'organismes d'abord anaérobies puis, à la suite de l'explosion cambrienne, aérobies. Une combinaison de facteurs tels que la distance de la Terre au Soleil (environ 150 millions de kilomètres — une unité astronomique —), son atmosphère, sa couche d'ozone, son champ magnétique et son évolution géologique ont permis à la vie d'évoluer et de se développer. Durant l'histoire évolutive du vivant, la biodiversité a connu de longues périodes d'expansion occasionnellement ponctuées par des extinctions massives ; environ 99 % des espèces qui ont un jour vécu sur Terre sont maintenant éteintes. En 2020, plus de 7,7 milliards d'êtres humains vivent sur Terre et dépendent de sa biosphère et de ses ressources naturelles pour leur survie. La Terre est la planète la plus dense du Système solaire ainsi que la plus grande et massive des quatre planètes telluriques. Son enveloppe rigide — appelée la lithosphère — est divisée en différentes plaques tectoniques qui migrent de quelques centimètres par an. Environ 71 % de la surface de la planète est couverte d'eau — notamment des océans, mais aussi des lacs et rivières, constituant l'hydrosphère — et les 29 % restants sont des continents et des îles. La majeure partie des régions polaires est couverte de glace, notamment avec l'inlandsis de l'Antarctique et la banquise de l'océan Arctique. La structure interne de la Terre est géologiquement active, le noyau interne solide et le noyau externe liquide (composés tous deux essentiellement de fer) permettant notamment de générer le champ magnétique terrestre par effet dynamo et la convection du manteau terrestre (composé de roches silicatées) étant la cause de la tectonique des plaques. (fr) , Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. While large volumes of water can be found throughout the Solar System, only Earth sustains liquid surface water. About 71% of Earth's surface is made up of the ocean, dwarfing Earth's polar ice, lakes, and rivers. The remaining 29% of Earth's surface is land, consisting of continents and islands. Earth's surface layer is formed of several slowly moving tectonic plates, interacting to produce mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes. Earth's liquid outer core generates the magnetic field that shapes Earth's magnetosphere, deflecting destructive solar winds. Earth's atmosphere consists mostly of nitrogen and oxygen. More solar energy is received by tropical regions than polar regions and is redistributed by atmospheric and ocean circulation. Water vapor is widely present in the atmosphere and forms clouds that cover most of the planet. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere like carbon dioxide (CO2) trap a part of the energy from the Sun close to the surface. A region's climate is governed by latitude, but also by elevation and proximity to moderating oceans. Severe weather, such as tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, and heatwaves, occurs in most areas and greatly impacts life. Earth is an ellipsoid with a circumference of about 40,000 km. It is the densest planet in the Solar System. Of the four rocky planets, it is the largest and most massive. Earth is about eight light minutes away from the Sun and orbits it, taking a year (about 365.25 days) to complete one revolution. Earth rotates around its own axis in slightly less than a day (in about 23 hours and 56 minutes). is tilted with respect to the perpendicular to its orbital plane around the Sun, producing seasons. Earth is orbited by one permanent natural satellite, the Moon, which orbits Earth at 380,000 km (1.3 light seconds) and is roughly a quarter as wide as Earth. The Moon always faces the Earth with the same side through tidal locking and causes tides, stabilizes Earth's axis, and gradually slows its rotation. Earth formed over 4.5 billion years ago. During the first billion years of Earth's history, the ocean formed and then life developed within it. Life spread globally and began to affect Earth's atmosphere and surface, leading to Earth's Great Oxidation Event two billion years ago. Humans emerged 300,000 years ago, and have reached a population of almost 8 billion today. Humans depend on Earth's biosphere and natural resources for their survival, but have increasingly impacted Earth's environment. Today, humanity's impact on Earth's climate, soils, waters, and ecosystems is unsustainable, threatening people's lives and causing widespread extinction of other life. (en) , La Tierra (del latín Terra, deidad romana equivalente a Gea, diosa griega de la feminidad y la fecundidad) es un planeta del sistema solar que gira alrededor de su estrella —el Sol— en la tercera órbita más interna. Es el más denso y el quinto mayor de los ocho planetas del sistema solar. También es el mayor de los cuatro terrestres o rocosos. La Tierra se formó hace aproximadamente 4550 millones de años y la vida surgió unos mil millones de años después. Es el hogar de millones de especies, incluidos los seres humanos y actualmente el único cuerpo astronómico donde se conoce la existencia de vida. La atmósfera y otras condiciones abióticas han sido alteradas significativamente por la biosfera del planeta, favoreciendo la proliferación de organismos aerobios, así como la formación de una capa de ozono que junto con el campo magnético terrestre bloquean la radiación solar dañina, permitiendo así la vida en la Tierra. Las propiedades físicas de la Tierra, la historia geológica y su órbita han permitido que la vida siga existiendo. Se estima que el planeta seguirá siendo capaz de sustentar vida durante otros 500 millones de años, ya que según las previsiones actuales, pasado ese tiempo la creciente luminosidad del Sol terminará causando la extinción de la biosfera. La superficie terrestre o corteza está dividida en varias placas tectónicas que se deslizan sobre el magma durante periodos de varios millones de años. La superficie está cubierta por continentes e islas; estos poseen varios lagos, ríos y otras fuentes de agua, que junto con los océanos de agua salada que representan cerca del 71 % de la superficie constituyen la hidrósfera. No se conoce ningún otro planeta con este equilibrio de agua líquida, que es indispensable para cualquier tipo de vida conocida. Los polos de la Tierra están cubiertos en su mayoría de hielo sólido (indlandsis de la Antártida) o de banquisas (casquete polar ártico). El interior del planeta es geológicamente activo, con una gruesa capa de manto relativamente sólido, un núcleo externo líquido que genera un campo magnético, y un sólido núcleo interior compuesto por aproximadamente un 88 % de hierro. La Tierra interactúa gravitatoriamente con otros objetos en el espacio, especialmente el Sol y la Luna. En la actualidad, la Tierra completa una órbita alrededor del Sol cada vez que realiza 366,26 giros sobre su eje, lo cual es equivalente a 365,26 días solares o un año sideral. El eje de rotación de la Tierra se encuentra inclinado 23,4° con respecto a la perpendicular a su plano orbital, lo que produce las variaciones estacionales en la superficie del planeta con un período de un año tropical (365,24 días solares). La Tierra posee un único satélite natural, la Luna, que comenzó a orbitar la Tierra hace 4530 millones de años; esta produce las mareas, estabiliza la inclinación del eje terrestre y reduce gradualmente la velocidad de rotación del planeta. Hace aproximadamente 3800 a 4100 millones de años, durante el llamado bombardeo intenso tardío, numerosos asteroides impactaron en la Tierra, causando significativos cambios en la mayor parte de su superficie. Tanto los minerales del planeta como los productos de la biosfera aportan recursos que se utilizan para sostener a la población humana mundial. Sus habitantes están agrupados en unos 200 estados soberanos independientes, que interactúan a través de la diplomacia, los viajes, el comercio y la acción militar. Las culturas humanas han desarrollado muchas ideas sobre el planeta, incluida la personificación de una deidad, la creencia en una Tierra plana o en la Tierra como centro del universo, y una perspectiva moderna del mundo como un entorno integrado que requiere administración. (es) , …
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Zapatismo is the armed movement identified with the ideas of Emiliano Zapata, leader of the Mexican Revolution, reflected mainly in the Plan of Ayala term 1911. The members of the Liberation Army of the South led by Zapata were known as "Zapatistas". One of the most symbolic phrases of Zapatismo was that the land belongs to the tiller, reflecting a kind of agrarian socialism, originally coined by Zapata himself while trying to remove the chieftaincy in Mexico and restore possession of the land to the peasant classes in the south. The phrase and what it represents became the symbols of Mexican agrarianism. (en) +
